作者：欧阳凤，外号“山羊”，曾在国内从事乡村儿童公益教育工作7年，目前在伦敦大学学院（UCL）教育社会实践系攻读教育、性别与国际发展硕士学位，关注教育公平、乡村儿童阅读科学与早期教育。
Course: Education, Gender, and International Development
Module: IOEF0028: Migration, Education, and Development 2023-24
I would like to thank my tutor, Professor Elaine Chase, and my friend, ChunYun, for their assistance in improving this assignment. This article is based on a 3500-word English paper and a 1500-word blog written for the UCL IOE postgraduate module "Migration, Education, and Development," and has been translated into Chinese with the help of ChatGPT. Please excuse any shortcomings in the translation.
Reimagining Rural Primary Education in China: Local Practices to Enhance Educational Equality for Rural Children Amidst Rural-to-Urban Migration
Introduction
China experienced the biggest internal migration in human history since the 1980s (Sicular et al.,2022). This massive rural-to-urban migration has depleted financial resources, high-quality teachers, and the number of students in rural areas (Jha et al.,2022). Reconstructing rural education in the face of such large-scale migration is crucial for the well-being of millions of rural children and for upholding social justice in China. Over the past two decades, the Chinese government has focused on the quantitative aspect and economic efficiency issue of rural education and implemented policies to merge and close many small rural schools, leading to longer commute and safety issues for many rural students, amidst other problems.
In contrast, this essay advocates an alternative view of education by drawing on Amartya Sen’s capability approach that prioritizes the development of human capability and overall well-being beyond economic concerns. I argue that effective educational reform in rural areas necessitates proactive strategies to leverage local resources and develop rural teachers’ capabilities to foster the holistic development of rural students. I support my argument with three examples of innovative local practices from a local rural teacher, an educational nongovernmental organization (NGO), and my personal working experience, that have reimaged and adopted localized practices to develop rural students’ agency and freedom.
This essay will first discuss how migration has impacted rural schools in the next section, followed by a description of the responses of the Chinese government to merging and closing small rural schools in the third section. The fourth section presents Amartya Sen’s capability approach as an alternative view of education. The fifth section provides three examples of innovative practices to improve rural students’ capability. The final section offers a comprehensive synthesis and conclusion.
Impact of Rural-to-Urban Migration on Rural Primary Schools
In the context of migration, education plays a complex role in development, particularly regarding the impact of migration on educational and developmental progress (North et al., 2022). Historically constrained by household registration systems, employment regulations, and social security restrictions, China has steadily dismantled barriers to rural-urban migration since the late 1980s (Pang et al.,2022). Migration serves diverse purposes, including pursuing education, acquiring technical skills, and enabling rural laborers to access urban opportunities. However, the primary driver remains significant urban-rural income disparities across education, healthcare, and job opportunities (Guo,2010). This internal migration is therefore the biggest in world history since many people from rural areas have migrated to cities. From 21.35 million in 1990 to 253 million in 2015, the count of people migrating between countries has skyrocketed (Liu et al.,2018). Large-scale internal migration over the past four decades had many adverse impacts on rural schools.
First, massive rural-to-urban migration left rural areas with limited financial resources to invest in education. The poor governments in rural China were further deprived of economic resources due to the hollowing out of its population. The central government's emphasis on urban growth and underfunding of rural education has aggravated disparities in educational results, school quality, and educational benefits (Connelly et al.,2007; Hannum, 1999; Wang,2011). The issues that rural primary schools face is highlighted by the persistent inequities in educational investment, as well as the discrepancies in educational achievement, school quality, and educational returns (Zhang, 2017).
Second, migration and urbanization deprived many rural areas of high-quality teachers. Most qualified teachers sought jobs in urban schools for their career development and family. Consequently, many rural schools still prioritize grades and test scores, using outdated teaching methods that emphasize rote learning while neglecting the development of children's self-actualization skills (Freire,1970,2000), which hinders the overall development of children.
Third, migration further reduces the number of potential students for rural schools, making it hard to leverage the economy of scale to develop quality education. Some kids migrated to cities with their migrant parents. Rural population and potential students were further limited by China’s one-child policy and decreasing birth rates since mid-1980s. Despite high initial enrollment rates, rural schools face higher dropout rates due to educational quality disparities compared to urban counterparts (Brown et al.,2002). Consequently, rural schools encounter numerous challenges, including reduced teacher-student ratios, uneven educational resource allocation, low teaching quality, and insufficient fulfillment of educational roles.
Fourth, China's distinctive pattern of rural-to-urban migration has led to many parents working in cities, leaving behind a vulnerable group of "Liu Shou" children in the villages. Those children lack the daily support and guidance of parents and often live in poor conditions with grandparents, let alone educational support. This separation between parents and children results from a Chinese household registration system that binds education slots to one’s original place of household registration, varying educational levels, and expensive urban living costs (Xu et al.,2020). According to UNICEF (2023), in 2020, about 65.17 million children (equivalent to twice the population of California) lived in previously impoverished areas, accounting for 21.9% of the national child population. Most of these (57.8%) lived in rural areas with ongoing survival and developmental difficulties (UNICEF et al., 2023). With 61.025 million children in rural areas, the 2013 All-China Women's Federation Task Group underlined that 37.7% of rural children and 21.89% of the overall kid population nationally were left behind. Research indicates that children who are left behind face detrimental effects on their education, health, and general development of human resources (Meyerhoefer et al.,2011; Zhao et al.,2014).
However, the phenomenon of rural-to-urban migration in China, as observed in rural areas, does not necessarily have entirely negative impacts on rural schools. For instance, some children benefit from traveling to urban areas during school holidays to join their working parents. This exposure to city life can introduce them to urban developments, such as visiting libraries and museums for the first time, which can boost their confidence when they return to their rural schools.
Finally, in recent years, rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to the gradual dominance of Western urban culture over China's traditional rural culture, particularly in rural schools and communities (Zhang,2022). This cultural shift has deepened the isolation between rural communities and their schools. Key issues hindering the development of rural schools include their marginalized status and rigid internal and external governance systems (Zhu,2019). These schools often compare themselves unfavorably with urban schools, which hampers curriculum alignment and reform efforts. External evaluations frequently label them as "weak" and "needing assistance," further undermining their unique educational contributions (Fan, 2018).
Chinese Government Responses: Rural School Mergers and Closures
In response to the shrinking number of students and to alleviate fiscal burdens on counties and enhance educational efficiency, the 2001 "Decision of the State Council on the Reform and Development of Basic Education" mandated adaptive adjustments to rural compulsory education school layouts. This policy prompted widespread consolidation of rural primary and secondary schools, known as "school mergers and closures" (Wu,2023). While local governments aimed to improve educational quality and achieve balanced regional development by removing small-scale inefficient rural schools, this strategy increased risks such as school dropout rates among economically disadvantaged children in remote areas (Zhu,2024).
As part of the implementation of the merger program, education officials aggressively combined smaller schools across the nation into larger central schools between 2001 and 2011. As a result, there was a sharp decrease in elementary schools in rural China, from 416,000 in 2001 to 317,000 in 2005—a 24% decrease. The yearly closure rate was approximately 25,000 (Liu et al.2010; Loyalka,2010). Data from the Ministry of Education shows that between 1997 and 2009, the number of main schools in rural areas dropped by 50% (Pang et al.,2022), while township and county schools expanded to accommodate displaced students. This reduction caused a decline in student and teacher populations, longer commuting distances, and heightened safety concerns (Zhang,2023).
In response to these challenges, the "Opinions on Standardizing the Adjustment of Rural Compulsory Education School Layouts," issued by the General Office of the State Council in September 2012, aimed to curb indiscriminate school consolidation practices. It advocated for supporting small-scale schools and teaching points in rural areas instead (Duan,2018; Zhang,2024; Guo et al.,2023). However, some county-level administrations implemented uniform approaches during school mergers, prioritizing economies of scale (Duan,2018; Zhang,2024). As a result, many schools, despite performing well, were closed because their student populations fell below 100.
The implementation of the merger strategy, along with the phenomenon of rural-to-urban migration and the decrease in birth rates, has had a substantial effect on both the quantity and dimensions of rural schools in China. By the end of 2017, there were 107,000 small-scale rural schools in China, according to Liu (2024). 27,000 elementary schools and 80,000 teaching points are included in this total and these schools and teaching points accounted for 44.4% of all rural primary educational facilities (Liu,2024). These institutions play a crucial role in providing quality compulsory education and serve as essential resources for eligible rural children, including many boarding students (Zhang,2024).
As can be seen, the Chinese government focused on the quantitative number of students and economic efficiency when addressing the impacts of internal migration on rural schools. Such a quantitative and economic view of education underlies its policies and practices to merge and close schools, gathering the dwindling rural students to larger schools, despite longer commuting distances for students and safety concerns of rural kids walking long distance to schools.
An alternative view of education is needed to enhance the well-being and educational justice of rural children. To this end, Amartya Sen's Capability Approach emphasizes viewing individuals as ends in themselves and striving for educational justice (MaCowan et al.,2021). Sen's theory advocates for an educational model that fosters students' capabilities and well-being, promoting a more holistic and equitable approach to education.
Introduction to the Capability Approach as An Alternative View of Education
The capacity approach provides a thorough framework for evaluating human development and advancing social fairness. It was first created by Amartya Sen and later expanded by Martha Nussbaum. Essentially, this approach highlights the importance of giving individuals the real chance to live lives that they find meaningful and have good reasons to find meaningful (Sen,1999). It encompasses a broad array of capabilities, reflecting what individuals can be and do given their personal attributes, social environment, available resources, rights, and institutional contexts (Unterhalter,2013).
The capacity approach developed by Sen is widely praised for its thorough evaluation method, which emphasizes the intrinsic value of humans rather than viewing them solely as instruments for economic productivity. It acknowledges and accepts the variety and differences among humans each with different conversion factors based on gender, ethnicity, social status, caste, or age. In addition, it highlights the need of human involvement and active engagement by promoting the use of practical reasoning, deliberative democracy, and public action to shape objectives, make decisions, and impact policy (Clark,2006).
Departing from conventional economic paradigms, Sen integrates ethical considerations into the assessment of well-being.Sen argues for a comprehensive assessment of well-being that goes beyond the conventional focus on financial resources or usefulness. Instead, he emphasizes the need of considering individuals' skills to attain their desired goals (Rajapakse, 2016). This viewpoint highlights the significance of human variation in evaluating well-being, highlighting that the capacities of each individual are vital aspects of their freedom and success (Sen et al.,2007).
Sen's approach raises a fundamental question: "Equality of what?" This inquiry prompts scholars and policymakers to carefully examine the distribution of capacities within certain social and political settings (Sen,1992). The capacity approach offers a comprehensive view of human accomplishment and well-being by examining how personal decisions, social structures, and relational dynamics interact with each other (Sen et al.,2000).
However, the capability approach is not without criticism. Critics argue that its lack of a definitive list of capabilities complicates practical application, making it challenging to identify universally valuable capabilities amid differing perspectives on what constitutes a good life (Sugden,1993; Williams,1987; Nussbaum,1988; Qizilbash,1998). Additionally, concerns exist about the approach's ability to compare well-being across individuals due to varying valuations of capabilities (Beitz,1986). Despite these challenges, Sen and others have proposed methods to address these issues and extend incomplete orderings (Sen,1985; 1993; Saith, 2001).
Martha Nussbaum expands on the capacity concept by outlining ten fundamental capabilities that are crucial for human well-being. Her comprehensive framework covers all aspects of life, including health, education, and personal security (Nussbaum, 2011). This extension enhances the approach's applicability in various sectors, including governmental measurement frameworks and local initiatives focused on equality and human rights monitoring (Walker,2020).
Nonetheless, critiques suggest that the approach may excessively prioritize individual capabilities over group dynamics and institutional structures (Alkire,2002). Advocates counter by asserting that Nussbaum’s approach does value community and institutional contexts that either facilitate or hinder substantive freedoms. Moreover, they argue that the approach's focus on capabilities, rather than just income or resources, addresses broader domains of inequality and social justice (Robeyns,2003).
In the context of education and development, the capability approach challenges traditional notions of equality by emphasizing individual agency and the freedoms necessary to achieve educational aspirations (Unterhalter,2009). This approach provides a nuanced perspective on educational disparities, recognizing that outcomes are shaped not only by academic achievement but also by socioeconomic conditions, institutional support, and policy frameworks (Terzi et al.,2003).
For instance, rural-to-urban migration in China has exacerbated educational disparities, impacting access to quality education, educational attainment levels, and the overall well-being of rural students (Pang et al.,2022). By focusing on capabilities—such as access to educational resources, quality schooling, and the freedom to pursue educational goals—the capability approach highlights how these factors influence educational outcomes and opportunities for rural children.
This paper employs the capability approach to explore how local practices can enhance educational equality for rural children amidst rural-to-urban migration, focusing on the capabilities that rural children have reason to value and the freedoms they possess to achieve these aspirations. The next section will utilize this theory to analyze local practices in rural education.
Local Practice from Teachers and NGOs to Enhance the Agency and Freedom of Rural Children
The capability approach, which goes beyond quantitative measures and economic efficiency, allows us to reimagine quality education for rural children, even those with "Liu shou" status due to parental migration. This approach points to local environments and develops the capability of local actors to enhance their agency and freedom. After all, rural schools may have unique local resources that allows the students to explore and develop independent thinking despite financial and population constraints. There are indeed examples of individuals and non-governmental organizations that have adopted localized practices to enhance the agency and freedom of rural children. I will present three examples here: the first is drawn from online materials shared by a rural teacher, the second highlights the efforts of a prominent NGO focused on rural education, and the third is based on my own experience working with an NGO.
Holistic student development through local activities: Rural teacher Zhu Lifeng's educational initiatives at Shatou Rural Primary School in Wenzhou City, Zhejiang Province, China, exemplify how localized efforts can profoundly impact rural education, particularly for students from single-parent, left-behind, and economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Pang et al.,2022). With rural-to-urban migration prevalent in the region and a cultural emphasis on commerce over education, the school faced challenges such as a small student body of 21 and a teaching staff of 6, as many parents sought work opportunities in urban areas.
In response to these circumstances, Zhu Lifeng adopted a distinctive educational approach. Recognizing the students' lack of empathy and disconnect from natural life, he introduced practical experiences to instill compassion and understanding. For instance, he brought a mother dog and her puppy to the school, prompting the children to return the puppy to its mother after witnessing her distress (Zhu,2015). Similarly, by involving students in hatching chicks, Zhu Lifeng imparted valuable lessons on the resilience and fragility of life, leading to a heightened sensitivity among the children who subsequently refused to allow their raised chicks to be slaughtered (Zhu,2015).
Moreover, Zhu Lifeng innovatively developed the "Landscapes and Countryside Lessons," leveraging local natural resources for interdisciplinary learning. These outdoor activities, which integrate subjects like language, mathematics, and science, encourage students to appreciate nature and express themselves creatively (Nussbaum,2011). Such holistic education enhances scientific literacy, aesthetic awareness, and emotional development among students, fostering a comprehensive understanding of their environment.
Zhu Lifeng's concern for the welfare of his students extends beyond the classroom. He has observed instances where grandparents, lacking education and scientific knowledge, unintentionally endangered children's health, such as using pesticides on pillows to combat lice, which resulted in poisoning incidents (Zhu,2015). These experiences highlight the broader societal challenges Zhu Lifeng navigates while advocating for his students' well-being.
In essence, Zhu Lifeng's pedagogical approach, rooted in the capability approach's principles of promoting individual autonomy and initiative (Sen,1999), underscores his commitment to nurturing holistic student development in rural China. His efforts not only address educational gaps but also empower students to empathize, understand life's complexities, and engage meaningfully with their environment.
Grassroots NGOs enhancing rural teacher capability: to address the limited professional skills and status of rural teachers, many NGOs have endeavored to provide resources to rural schools and develop the capability of rural teachers. NGOs, characterized by their spontaneity, voluntary nature, and grassroots origins, effectively address social issues when government and market mechanisms fail (Gong et al.,2024). They establish service systems based on social welfare and uphold public interests. Among educational social organizations, nearly 110,000 are registered with the Ministry of Civil Affairs, while grassroots nonprofit organizations number just over 3,000 (Han et al., 2020). These organizations are mainly involved in educational activities such as scholarships, educational support, teacher development, care for left-behind children, social integration of migrant children, and promoting literacy.
Over the past decade, Chinese educational NGOs have increasingly concentrated on enhancing the quality of rural school education (Liang 2020). These organizations utilize a wide range of educational materials and methods to foster the holistic growth of rural teachers and students. They actively promote interdisciplinary links and investigate innovative approaches to rural education within the context of educational innovation and reform. These approaches are focused on addressing the concerns of life and the future (Liang, 2020). A noticeable "catfish effect" has resulted from these efforts, positioning them as important catalysts for changing rural education and bringing in fresh, dynamic components that energize the current system while promoting advancements and constructive adjustments.
One prominent example of NGO’s development of rural teacher capability is the Ma yun Rural Teachers Program. Launched by Jack Ma's Foundation, it serves as a powerful illustration of promoting the advancement of rural primary education as a means toattain independence. This program annually selects exceptional rural educators, offering financial sponsorship and opportunities for professional growth (Mayun Foundation,2023). Its objective is to elevate the status of rural teachers, enhance educational quality, and empower rural children by improving teaching methods and providing better resources (Sen et al.,2000).
Through financial support and continuous professional development, the program enables rural teachers like Wang Fei and Gu Yazhou to implement innovative teaching strategies tailored to local needs. Whether through online education platforms or extracurricular activities like forming rock bands (Mayun Foundation,2023,2024), these teachers enrich students' educational experiences and broaden their horizons (Terzi et al., 2003).
Leveraging local resources for education: during my time working with an NGO DanDangzhe Foundation and visiting numerous rural and urban schools, I observed a stark contrast in how these institutions utilize their resources. In urban schools, the high cost of land makes it prohibitively expensive to create gardens or planting areas for students. Conversely, rural schools have ample land and natural resources at their disposal. However, teachers in rural schools often fail to effectively utilize these resources. While some rural schools do offer gardening activities, many people do not perceive this as a form of education or fail to recognize the importance of local nature-based learning.
In response to the challenges faced by rural educators, the Acorn Science Program, an initiative of our NGO, offers teacher training to support science education that leverages local resources. We emphasize the adaptation of educational projects to the environmental and cultural contexts of rural communities. For example, one teacher implemented a curriculum based on the 24 Solar Terms, a traditional Chinese calendar, incorporating science projects that align with each term. During the Beginning of Winter (立冬), students engaged in rose propagation, learning about plant growth and transplantation through hands-on activities. Similarly, around the Grain Rain (谷雨) term, students visited an orchard to study apple flowers and pollination, which enhanced their learning and strengthened their connection to their local environment.
In a word, both Mr. Zhu Lifeng's initiatives and the two NGO Programs illustrate the transformative potential of educational philanthropy in rural China. These cases underscore the importance of localized approaches that respect community values and empower individuals within their social contexts (Sen,1992). The success of these initiatives highlights their potential scalability in other rural settings across China and globally. By focusing on enhancing capabilities and freedoms through localized educational practices, similar models can be adapted and implemented to address diverse educational challenges in different rural contexts (Rajapakse,2016).
However, while the approach rightly emphasizes individual agency and freedoms crucial for human flourishing, it may inadvertently overlook structural constraints and policy limitations shaping educational opportunities in rural areas. Challenges such as resource constraints, uneven distribution of educational resources, and governmental priorities favoring urban development over rural education remain formidable hurdles that demand attention (Brown et al.,2002). Unfortunately, despite Mr. Zhu's commendable achievements in enhancing educational quality and nurturing student agency, his school faced imminent closure due to government policies advocating school consolidation. This situation highlights the pressing issues of sustainability and underscores the necessity for broader institutional support to sustain successes in rural educational initiatives (Pang et al.,2022).
Conclusion
In the landscape shaped by rural-to-urban migration and educational disparities in China, the journey toward developing capabilities among rural children encounters profound challenges. The Chinese government has focused on the quantitative aspect and economic efficiency issues of rural education and decided to merge and close many rural schools, exacerbating educational opportunities and quality for rural children. In contrast, this essay promotes an alternative view of education—one based on Amartya Sen’s capability approach—and reimaging ways to foster well-being and educational justice for rural students. Nevertheless, the efforts dedicated to local teachers and educational NGOs have illuminated pathways to nurture children's autonomy and initiative despite financial constraints in rural areas. These initiatives celebrate the intrinsic value of local rural schools, creating nurturing environments that prioritize freedom and individuality amidst adversity. By emphasizing substantive freedom and the holistic development of children's capabilities, these endeavors challenge conventional norms of uniform educational standards. Instead, they champion an inclusive approach that embraces local wisdom and diverse perspectives.
These educational practices not only cultivate self-reliance and initiative but also spotlight the resilience and resourcefulness inherent in rural communities. Despite the closure of numerous rural schools and ongoing policy complexities in China, the initiatives discussed in this essay underscore the transformative potential of community-driven educational practices. As educator Gu Yuan aptly expressed, while mainstream education often prioritizes conformity through standardized curricula, grassroots initiatives harness local strengths and value diverse forms of intelligence. By integrating heart, mind, and hands in education, these efforts pave the way for a more comprehensive and enriching learning experience for rural children (Gu,2020).
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Acknowledged: I admit to using AI tools such as DeepL and ChatGPT to assist with language translation during the writing process.
