作者：欧阳凤，外号“山羊”，曾在国内从事乡村儿童公益教育工作7年，目前在伦敦大学学院（UCL）教育社会实践系攻读教育、性别与国际发展硕士学位，关注教育公平、乡村儿童阅读科学与早期教育。

Theory of Change Analysis in Program Design: A Comparasion of Two NGO Programs Enhancing Scientific Literacy Among Rural Primary School Children in China – 'G&S Science Class' and the 'Acorn Science’

Executive Summary

This report delves into the exploration of rural science education in China, leveraging the author's prior professional six-yearsinvolvement with the Acorn Science Project and pertinent research to identify prevalent challenges. Implicitly, it examines the theory of change employed by both the G&S Foundation's Science Class and the DanDangZhe Foundation’s Acorn Science Project. Subsequently, this framework is applied to analyze the project designs of both the G&S Science Class and the Acorn Science Project.

Findings from the critical evaluation suggest that in terms of driving change, the G&S Science Class emphasizes the utilization of the national primary school science curriculum, advocating for the proliferation of scientific inquiry pedagogy in rural schools. Conversely, the Acorn Science Project focuses on crafting captivating science courses independently, to ignite students' fascination with science and foster transformative learning experiences. At the strategic level, disparities emerge between the G&S Science Course and the Acorn Science Project. The former assumes that comprehensive implementation of the national primary school science curriculum enhances scientific literacy, while the latter focuses on developing STEM-related courses autonomously, nurturing students' scientific interests, and primarily assigning the onus of implementing the curriculum to the government. Evaluation of project effectiveness involves considerations such as societal impact, engagement rates, geographic coverage, team stability, and project outcomes. While both initiatives have made strides, the Acorn Science Project faces challenges with team stability, resource procurement, and strategic positioning, while the G&S Science Course grapples with scaling project implementation. Importantly, these projects are not isolated within their organizations, highlighting the need for a holistic organizational strategy.

In conclusion, through analysis, the report aims to provide a nuanced evaluation of the efficacy of the G&S Science Course and Acorn Science Project in advancing scientific literacy among rural youth. It modestly suggests recommendations such as develping the theory of change, empowering girls in science education, and bolstering scientific project evaluation to foster the enhancement of scientific literacy among a broader spectrum of rural children.

1.          Background and context

1.1.     Few Significant and Relevant China Economic, Social, Technological, and Policy Contexts

In recent decades, China has experienced substantial economic growth, surpassing many nations and narrowing the gap with developed countries (Sicular et al., 2022; World Bank, 2023). Beginning economic reforms in 1978, China has consistently achieved an annual GDP growth rate exceeding 9 percent (World Bank, 2023), significantly improving healthcare, education, and overall services, and lifting over 800 million people out of poverty (World Bank, 2023). China officially declared the eradication of absolute poverty in the early 2020s (UNICEF, 2022).

However, economic progress has been uneven, resulting in widening income disparities, particularly between urban and rural areas, peaking around 2008 (Jain-Chandra et al., 2018; World Bank, 2023). A substantial portion of the population still grapples with incomes below the upper-middle-income country poverty line (World Bank, 2023).

According to UNICEF (2023), approximately 65.17 million children (21.9% of the child population nationwide) resided in previously poverty-stricken areas in 2020, with a majority (57.8%) located in rural regions facing survival and developmental challenges (UNICEF, National Bureau of Statistics, UNFPA, 2023). Many of these children are left behind by migrating parents, disrupting family life and education, making them a vulnerable demographic (Fan Xianzuo, 2015). Educational disparities mirror economic inequalities, with left-behind rural children encountering barriers to education, health, and overall development (UNICEF, National Bureau of Statistics, UNFPA, 2023). Ensuring equitable education access for rural left-behind children is a critical social challenge during China's transitional phase (Fan Xianzuo, 2015).

In the early 20th century, Western-oriented Chinese intellectuals embraced modern science to critique traditional culture and propel the nation towards modernity (cited in Greenhalgh & L. Zhang, 2020). They promoted "Mr. Science" (sai Xian sheng) to address scientific backwardness underpinning poverty (L. Zhang, 2020). Despite China's embrace of Western science, a severe shortage of qualified scientists and technologists persists (Qiu et al., 2014), with projections indicating a shortfall of 22 million professionals by 2020 (Qiu et al., 2014). Addressing this shortage is critical for industrialization and technological advancement.

Recognizing scientific literacy's significance, the China State Council emphasizes initiatives to enhance people's scientific literacy, problem-solving skills, and knowledge (State Council, 2021). Despite legislative efforts, challenges like low scientific literacy and inadequate science popularization persist (State Council, 2021).

China's uneven economic development has left many rural areas with low to moderate incomes. Although China's scientific landscape is advancing, rural scientific literacy remains a concern. The educational development of rural children, especially those left behind by migrating parents, represents a crucial issue that requires attention for fostering inclusive growth and development.

1.2.     Problem SWTO Analysis: Science Education in China's Rural Primary Schools

The significance of STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) research and education for national development, economic competitiveness, and societal well-being is gaining global recognition (Freeman et al., 2019). China's science education sector, rooted in the Western scientific tradition for over a century, has faced challenges hindering its anticipated growth (Zhang & Zhu, 2014). Notably, Rao Yi (2023) highlights a prevalent misunderstanding of science among the Chinese populace, which often diminishes fundamental scientific research (Wu, 2023).

The Chinese Ministry of Education's efforts in 2001 and subsequent revisions in 2017 aimed to redefine science education as foundational, practical, and comprehensive, emphasizing its critical role in nurturing scientific literacy (Ji Siqi, Liu Jun, 2017; Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2022). However, effective implementation of policies to enhance scientific literacy, particularly in rural areas, remains challenging due to persistent urban-rural disparities (State Council, 2021).

Science education in rural primary schools in China encounters numerous complex challenges. Leveraging previous field experiences, a questionnaire survey, and academic literature research, this report employs SWOT analysis—a strategic planning tool—to identify and comprehend the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats pertinent to rural primary school science education.

1.2.1.  Strengths

• Curiosity and Interest of Students: Rural primary school children across China exhibit a natural desire for science, displaying strong curiosity and eagerness to explore scientific concepts (Feng OuYang, 2020; 杨毅 YiYang, 2023), providing a solid foundation for stimulating their interest in scientific learning.

• Foundational Education: Rural primary schools possess a strong foundation in traditional subjects like Chinese and mathematics, indicating potential opportunities for overall educational improvement.

• Natural Environmental Resources: A 2011 survey by Lu (2011) involving 200 teachers and 200 primary school students from rural schools in Jiangxi Province revealed that 96.7% of these schools are located in towns and villages surrounded by nature. Students have daily exposure to diverse elements of the natural environment, fostering a deep understanding of plant and animal growth processes. This firsthand experience with nature plays a crucial role in facilitating science learning (Lu, 2011).

1.2.2.  Weaknesses

• Lack of quality Science Teachers: A survey across 200 rural primary schools in China revealed a significant issue: only 5% of these schools have dedicated science teachers, with the majority relying on part-time instructors, often from non-scientific backgrounds (Yang Jianchao, 2010). This trend has persisted overseveral years, leading to situations where science courses are taught by teachers with limited scientific knowledge and educational skills (Zhang Hongping, 2023). As highlighted by Yang Jianchao (2010), these part-time teachers often lack the necessary educational philosophy and practical skills, thereby impacting the quality of science education.

• Inadequate science educational resources: Aiqing Feng (2024), a rural teacher, noted that many rural primary schools lack sufficient experimental equipment due to economic constraints and teaching philosophies. Outdated and malfunctioning equipment hinders rich and exploratory experiments, limiting students' ability to experience the excitement of scientific exploration (冯爱琴Aiqin Feng, 2024). This equipment shortage negatively affects the timeliness and enthusiasm of science experiments, hampering both teachers' and students' engagement in practical science learning (Feng OuYang, 2019).

• Unreasonable Evaluation Mechanism: Feedback from teachers indicates that science assessments in rural primary schools often rely on paper-based exams and rote memorization of lab report forms. This approach fails to reflect or stimulate students' interest in hands-on work, exploration, and discovery (Feng OuYang, 2019). The prevailing emphasis on traditional subjects like language and mathematics further diminishes the focus on science education. Additionally, the lack of incentives for science teachers contributes to the overall challenges in rural science education (Feng OuYang, 2019).

1.2.3.  Opportunities

• Policy Support: Government investment and policy support for rural education are increasing, providing opportunities for improving science education in rural primary schools(State Council, 2021).

• Technological Innovation: Utilizing technology such as online education platforms and distance learning can provide rural schools with more science teaching resources and support. 

1.2.4.  Threats

• Urban-Rural Disparities: Disparities in education development between urban and rural areas may result in rural schools consistently lagging behind urban schools in science education, increasing uncertainty for students' future development(Unicef, National Bureau of Statistics, UNFPA, 2023).

• Brain Drain: The phenomenon of rural science teachers leaving their positions or switching careers may further weaken the science education workforce and decrease students' scientific literacy(杨毅 YiYang;, 2023) .

• Outdated Education Concepts: Some parents and communities may not prioritize or value science education, impacting school investment and teacher motivation

The significance of early science education in cultivating scientific literacy cannot be overstated. Primary school represents a pivotal stage where students exhibit heightened curiosity, making it optimal for fostering scientific literacy (杨毅YiYang, 2023). Rural children's science education is not merely about imparting scientific knowledge and methods; it is also about instilling reverence for the scientific spirit and fostering their ability to think critically (吴国盛 GuoSheng Wu, 2023). By engaging in science education, children learn inclusivity, freedom, inquiry, and exploration, establishing a solid foundation for their future self-realization (Jamali et al., 2023). Strengthening science education for rural children is imperative, not only for their personal growth and development but also for elevating the overall scientific literacy level within society (State Council, 2021).

2.  Overview of Two NGO Programs

2.1.  Compare two NGOs' Backgrounds and Development History

Despite China boasting over 110,000 educational social organizations, less than 10 are dedicated to rural science education(21st Century Education Research Institute, 2013). Noteworthy among these is the G&S Foundation's G&S Science Course and the DDZ Foundation's Acorn Science project, both committed to advancing rural science education with over 7 years of history. This scarcity underscores the significance of these organizations in the field. Due to limited academic research on these NGOs in China, the following details are sourced from their official websites, relevant studies, and the author's NGO involvement.

Established in 2008, the G&S Foundation (Green&Shine Foundation, 2024) focuses on improving rural education, promoting educational equity, and sustainable development. Originating from a charity auction after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, it became China's first social organization dedicated to science education and youth scientific literacy (ZHANG Hongping, 2023). The foundation has three core projects—G&S Science Class, Mini library, and Rural Teacher Support—each with dedicated teams and funding. To date, the G&S Foundation has executed 1201 projects in rural areas, investing over 1.27 billion yuan and benefiting more than 5.13 million people (Green&Shine Foundation 2022 Annual Report).

In contrast, the DDZ Foundation was founded in 2008 by Teacher Zhang Tongqing and rural students, initially focused on civic responsibilities and social development before shifting to rural children's reading education (HUANG Jin-hong, 2017). Despite modest initial funding, the DDZ Foundation has established 76,209 classroom libraries in 10,071 rural schools across 729 counties and districts, benefiting 3.7 million children and 90,000 teachers, raising a total of 204.802 million yuan (DanDangZhe foundation, 2024). In 2016, the DDZ Foundation introduced a rural children's reading curriculum, including literature expression and fun science classes, with the author leading the fun science project until 2022 (Feng OuYang, 2020).

The G&S Foundation and DDZ Foundation differ significantly in their establishment and strategic focus. The G&S Foundation prioritizes rural education and sustainable development through independent core projects, while the DDZ Foundation's evolution from civic responsibilities to reading education. The G&S Foundation's primary school science courses commenced in 2008 to address rural education gaps, emphasizing science as a strategic focus. Conversely, the DDZ Foundation's science project emerged later related the mission of reading. These distinctions inform the analysis of the G&S Science Class and the Acorn Science project, explored further in subsequent sections.

2.2.   Introduction of G&S Science Class and Acorn Science

2.2.1.  The G&S Science Class

The G&S Science Class, operated by the Green & Shine Foundation (2024), has been dedicated to fostering strong scientific literacy in children since 2009. Rooted in the expertise of a professional team, this project aims to enhance the teaching standards and capabilities of primary school science educators in China's central and western regions. Through a comprehensive approach that integrates county-level science education support and foundational research, the G&S Science Class seeks to achieve its goal. Initiated in 2009, the project has evolved into a comprehensive support system focused on science teacher training. It includes components such as science summer camps, science experiment toolboxes, and local science education studios(张洪萍; ZHANG Hongping, 2023). Support for science teachers' professional development includes training, action, and incentive support. The expert team comprises esteemed professionals and distinguished primary school science teachers from various cities across China(桂馨基金会2022年度报告 Green&Sine Foundation 2022 Annual Report.Pdf, n.d.).

As of December 31, 2023, the G&S Science Class project has made significant progress, covering 42 counties in 8 provinces. It has organized 134 science teacher training sessions, benefiting 10,851 educators offline. Additionally, it facilitated the East-West Science Teacher Exchange Program, G&S Science Master Westward Tours, and G&S Science Summer Camps. The project has donated science experiment toolboxes to schools, established Little Scientist Laboratories, and published scientific education monographs. In total, it has impacted over 3 million teachers and students. Financially, the project's expenditure totaled over 6 million yuan from 2022 to 2023(北京桂馨慈善基金会.Pdf, n.d.). For a detailed outline of the G&S Science Class, please refer to the accompanying diagram.

Figure1. Science Class Project Architecture, translated based on the original diagram provided on the official website

2.2.2.  Acorn Science

The Acorn Science project, operated by the DDZ Foundation (2024), aims to empower rural children with lifelong learning abilities and cultivate their curiosity, critical thinking, and spirit of exploration. Since 2014, the project has been dedicated to enhancing the scientific literacy of rural children, initially through the "Fun Science" initiative. It has conducted school visits and teacher workshops across various provinces nationwide, focusing on rural areas(Feng OuYang, 2020). In 2022, the project embarked on independent fundraising and product development, introducing a children's science innovation center space designed for schools, along with a set of engaging science activity course boxes for teachers and students. Acorn Science has independently developed projects such as science boxes, courses, rural children's science innovation centers, school visits, and teacher workshops, aiming to foster a love for science among rural children and enhance their scientific knowledge and skills(DanDangZhe foundation, 2024).For a detailed outline of the Acorn Science, please refer to the accompanying diagram.

Figure2. Acorn Science-Project Framework System Diagram ,translated based on the original diagram provided on the official website

In conclusion,both the G&S Science Class and Acorn Science projects aim to enhance children's scientific literacy in rural areas, but they differ in methods and focus. The G&S Science Class emphasizes primary school teacher training, research support, and fundamental science education, covering a wider scope. In contrast, Acorn Science focuses on providing practical and enjoyable science education resources and activities for rural children and teachers. Additionally, while the G&S Science Class has broader coverage, Acorn Science targets specific rural schools. Despite these differences, both projects play significant roles in promoting science education. They were recognized with the Top Ten Charity Awards, indicating their impactful contributions(gongyi-ifeng, 2022). Further analysis using a framework theory will provide deeper insights into these projects.

3.  Theory of Change and Implicit Theory of change for the two NGO projects

3.1.   Introduction to the Theory of Change and Its Limitations

The Theory of Change (ToC) is a conceptual framework commonly used in development projects, aiming to elucidate the causal pathways through which interventions lead to specific outcomes (Danielle & Craig, 2012). While ToC lacks a universally accepted definition, it signifies a shift towards a more comprehensive understanding of change processes within organizations (Danielle Stein and Craig Valters, 2012).

ToC is essentially a set of assumptions explaining the sequential steps leading to long-term goals and the connections between these steps and intervention outcomes (Anderson, 2004, as cited in Monaghan & King, 2018). It outlines how activities are expected to generate a series of results contributing to achieving desired impacts at various levels of intervention (Rogers, 2014). However, the utility of ToCs is debated due to varying interpretations and terminology, leading to challenges in program development and evaluation (James, 2011; Vogel, 2012b; Stein & Valters, 2012). Critics argue that the ambiguous use of language in ToC discussions can result in unrealistic promises, necessitating greater clarity and consensus (Stein & Valters, August 2012).

Articulating ToCs often involves exploring beliefs or assumptions about how change occurs, with some viewing these elements as integral to ToCs themselves (Shapiro, 2006, as cited in Danielle Stein and Craig Valters, 2012). Despite their flexibility, ToCs remain underutilized, particularly in conflict-affected contexts, due to a lack of consensus and clarity (Monaghan & King, 2018; Stein & Valters, August 2012).

In summary, while ToC provides a nuanced understanding of change processes, its lack of consensus and varying interpretations limit its effectiveness. Clearer definitions and common terminology are essential to enhance its utility in addressing complex social problems.

3.2.  Implicit Theory of Change for the Two NGO Projects

Inferring the theory of change for both the G&S Science Class and Acorn Science projects is vital to ensure their effectiveness and sustainability. Although the project frameworks of these initiatives do not explicitly mention a theory of change, their diagrams suggest causal relationships between activities and outcomes. However, these diagrams fall short of constituting genuine theories of change because they primarily list projects and overarching goals without articulating clear causal relationships and pathways to intended outcomes. A comprehensive theory of change requires detailed specifications of the specific results and impacts these projects aim to achieve, alongside fundamental assumptions (Mayne & Johnson, 2015; Mayne, 2015).

For analytical purposes, inferring a theory of change for each project based on the G&S Science and Acorn Science project diagrams is necessary. This inference process integrates existing information to assess and evaluate fundamental assumptions. In the literature, various terms such as results chains, logic models, and impact pathways describe causal pathways. In this report, the term "impact pathways" is utilized. Impact pathways elucidate the causal linkages between activities and outcomes, while a theory of change complements these pathways by detailing the underlying causal assumptions—what must occur for the causal linkages to materialize (Mayne, J. 2015).

There are diverse methods to describe impact pathways and theories of change, as discussed by Funnell and Rogers (2011). The following figure illustrates a basic generic theory of change that has proven useful in various contexts:

Figure3.Schematic Depiction of a theory of change, Peer Review Group meeting

It's important to note that the causal link assumptions depicted in the theory of change image explain the principles and reasons underlying the causal relationships, rather than describing the causal links themselves (Weiss, 1995; Monaghan & King, 2018).

Critically, theories of change for program management often adopt a standardized approach, overlooking how contextual realities might influence pathways to change. Understanding these contextual influences is essential for uncovering the circumstances and reasons why a particular policy or program succeeds (Alcott, Rose, 2020). As an external observer, this report's inference of the theory of change for these projects may be incomplete and insufficient due to the continuous updates and improvements typical of nonprofit organizations. The following images depict the derived Theory of Change frameworks for the two projects.

Figure4.The derived Theory of Change for G&S Science Class

Note: the figure is the result of the report's analysis

Figure5. The derived Theory of Change for Acorn Science

Note: the figure is the result of the report's analysis

4.   Analysis Program Design of G&S Science Class and Acorn Science

4.1.  Theory of Change as Analysis of Program Design

Theory of Change (ToC) methodology, highlighted in the literature by Rogers (2014) and Johnson et al. (2015), is widely used in program evaluation but faces limitations that hinder its full potential. One issue is the struggle of many ToC models to capture program complexity effectively, leading to unclear or incoherent representations (Rogers, 2014). Additionally, some ToC diagrams may overlook key elements or fail to convey interrelationships between components, resulting in a superficial understanding of how programs induce change (Johnson et al., 2015). Furthermore, ambiguity persists regarding the appropriate level at which organizations should focus ToC efforts, with challenges in creating unified theories that encompass all change aspects (Johnson et al., 2015). Conversely, overly narrow theories risk oversimplifying intervention impacts, failing to capture full complexity.

Despite these challenges, when executed thoughtfully, ToC provides a valuable method for program evaluation. By meticulously planning and evaluating interventions while considering causality, ToC helps identify effective strategies and interventions. Moreover, ToC methodologies foster collaboration between evaluators and practitioners, democratizing the evaluation process and enriching complex theory development (Rogers, 2014; Johnson et al., 2015). When evaluating program designs using ToC, it is crucial to scrutinize key change levers and assess their effectiveness by examining underlying assumptions and their plausibility in the given context.

This report employs Theory of Change to critically analyze program design through three key aspects: 1) key change levers, 2) underlying assumptions, and 3) validity. Through this analysis, the report aims to identify potential gaps or flaws in program logic and uncover improvement opportunities.

Assumptions play a critical role in ToC development, outlining necessary conditions for change to occur (Alcott, Rose, Sabates, 2020). All theories of change should highlight program or policy assumptions that impact outcomes or barriers to achieving expected benefits. However, inconsistencies in defining and addressing assumptions can undermine ToC robustness, potentially leading to flawed program design or evaluation (Rogers, 2014). Additionally, while evidence is crucial for substantiating ToC assumptions and causal pathways, its integration remains underexplored.

4.2.   Analyzing the Design of Two Projects Using Theory of Change from Three Dimensions

4.2.1.  KeyLevers for Change 

When it comes to the pivotal drivers of change, G&S Science Class and Acorn Science Project present starkly different characteristics.

G&S Class's transformative key seems to lie in leveraging the national primary school science curriculum as its foundation, actively advocating for the promotion of scientific inquiry teaching in rural schools. The project aims to widely disseminate science courses at the primary level and ensure rural science teachers possess the core competencies outlined in the national science curriculum. It emphasizes internal changes to the science curriculum, including the establishment of primary school science laboratories, improvement of primary school science courses, training of rural science teachers, and deeper understanding of the primary school science curriculum standards(Green&Shine Foundation, 2024). Its goal is to shift the traditional mode of science teaching from simple knowledge dissemination to a student-led inquiry approach. By collaborating with experts such as authors of national primary school science textbooks and distinguished science teachers, the project aims to further advance primary school science education(揭秘“探究”从“非科学探究”说起--以桂馨科学骨干教师培训青海三县活动为例.Pdf, n.d.).

In contrast, the Acorn Science Project's transformative key seems to lie in independently developing engaging science courses aimed at promoting transformative learning approaches in science. The project focuses on using extracurricular activities to drive changes within the classroom(魏红春HongChun Wei, 2016). Specific initiatives include developing innovative courses, training science teachers to spark student interest, and using common materials from daily life rather than laboratory equipment to make it easier for regular teachers to implement in classrooms. Its goal is to ignite students' interest in science and allow them to deeply experience the allure of science during learning. The project's collaborative team includes scientists, technology experts, various educators, and science writers from publishing houses. While its concept aligns with STEM education principles, the Acorn Science Project does not heavily involve content from the national primary school science curriculum.

Therefore, it's evident that G&S Science Class doesn't need to develop its curriculum independently but relies on the national primary school science curriculum and materials for training, procuring directly from the market. In contrast, the Acorn Science Project has been dedicated to independently developing its curriculum from the outset, investing considerable time in research and design. However, its innovative and engaging course content has won favor among teachers, leading to a fresh understanding of science education. Led by a young team passionate about educational transformation, the project places a stronger emphasis on attracting expert teachers from various fields to integrate their shared content into exciting courses, thus achieving educational innovation goals.

4.2.2.  Assumptions

G&S Science Class assumes that enhancing the scientific literacy of rural primary school students primarily involves implementing the national primary school science curriculum comprehensively, with a focus on continuous and sustained classroom learning. It assumes that equipping rural teachers with scientific equipment is crucial for effective experimental teaching. Collaborating with the county education bureau and training scientific research personnel within the bureau are deemed essential for primary school science course implementation. Enriching science education through activities like summer science camps is also considered vital. Inviting nationally recognized science teachers for teacher training in county schools is assumed to meet rural teachers' growth needs. Additionally, G&S Science Class emphasizes enhancing theoretical research on basic science courses in national primary school science education to focus on resource mobilization and collaboration with education bureaus.

However, these assumptions have limitations. Some rural teachers find that certain content in the national primary school science curriculum is impractical for rural schools, and standard scientific equipment may not be suitable for direct classroom use. Furthermore, nationally recognized primary school science teachers may not fully understand rural teachers' actual situations. Despite poverty alleviation efforts addressing laboratory equipment issues, equipment in some rural schools may fail to ignite interest among teachers and students.

In contrast, Acorn Science assumes that enhancing elementary students' scientific literacy should focus on fostering interest in science. Given limited resources in rural areas, Acorn Science prioritizes making science enjoyable and cultivating scientific interest and thinking rather than solely imparting knowledge. Acorn Science believes in igniting teachers' interest through enjoyable science courses to pave the way for deeper science engagement. It also assumes that promoting the implementation of the national primary school science curriculum is primarily the government's responsibility rather than non-profit organizations'. Therefore, Acorn Science provides supplementary scientific content for elementary students and seeks recognition through collaboration with education bureaus. Acorn Science aims to influence teachers' implementation of primary school science courses gradually through engaging science activities and involvement of scientists. However, Acorn Science faces challenges in practice due to the lack of integration between activities and the primary school science curriculum, potentially encountering obstacles in collaborating with education bureaus and teachers.

4.2.3.  Validity

When evaluating the validity of the G&S Science Class and Acorn Science programs, it's essential to consider key aspects:

Social Impact and Recognition: Both initiatives have gained widespread acclaim in Chinese society. Acorn Science received the Cross-Strait Education Innovation Leadership Award and was recognized among the top ten public welfare projects by Phoenix Network. Similarly, G&S Science Class, a pioneer in children's science education, has been honored by Phoenix Network over its 18-year history, known for aligning with national curriculum standards and professional teacher training.

Direct Engagement and Participation: Acorn Science directly engages children through diverse programs, including participation in science competitions, and supports teachers' professional development. In comparison, G&S Science Class focuses more on county-level education research personnel rather than rural teachers, providing extensive support to elite science teachers and researchers but limited support to all collaborating county-level teachers.

Geographical Coverage and Resource Allocation: G&S Science Class serves county-level cities in western China, connecting with urban educational researchers and science teachers. Acorn Science, on the other hand, covers rural schools nationwide, fostering connections with scientists and educators, with broader geographical coverage to reach underprivileged children.

Team Stability and Resource Acquisition: G&S Science Class benefits from focused fundraising and stable team resources. In contrast, Acorn Science faces challenges due to less clear team positioning and limited financial resources, hindering its development.

Project Effectiveness and Strategic Positioning: G&S Science Class excels in professional recognition and educational research, while Acorn Science prioritizes direct student engagement and social inclusivity with broader geographical coverage.

In conclusion, a comprehensive evaluation of these aspects provides insights into the effectiveness of both programs, emphasizing the importance of continual improvement in social welfare project development.

5.  Some recommendations based on research and reflection

5.1.  Embracing the Theory of Change: A Path to Project Evolution

Neither the Guixin Science Class nor the Acorn Science Project has fully embraced the theory of change in their project design and evaluation processes, necessitating a theoretical transformation to clarify the mechanisms of change within their initiatives. Engaging in such reflection is crucial for ensuring that projects effectively enhance the scientific literacy of rural children despite resource constraints. Establishing measurable standards to evaluate project outputs and outcomes is essential. Developing a theory of change model to outline activities and result sequences is complex but pivotal (Mayne, 2015).

Embracing the theory of change presents an opportunity for transformative growth, allowing organizations to transcend existing frameworks and envision innovative solutions (Keystone, 2009).

5.2  Promoting Gender Equality in Science Education Programs

Both the G&S Science Class and the Acorn Science Project should empower girls within their program designs. While Acorn Science features female scientists as role models and encourages girls' participation, specific interventions tailored for girls' science education are lacking. Gender stereotypes in the Chinese education sector persist, potentially affecting women's participation in science (Cunningham, 2023). Educational practices may hinder female students' participation in science learning (Alexakos & Antoine, 2003).

Therefore, it is recommended that both initiatives ensure equal opportunities for all students to engage actively in science learning. Emphasis should be placed on integrating STEM solutions to challenge gender inequality (UNICEF, 2020).

5.3  Enhancing Program Evaluation and Outcome Orientation in Project Development

Chinese NGOs face significant challenges in project implementation and assessment, resulting in incomplete assessments, as seen in the Green&Shine Science and Acorn Science projects. Relying solely on objective statistics and subjective perceptions is inadequate (ZHANG Hongping, 2023). To achieve meaningful outcomes, the G&S Foundation and DDZ Foundation must prioritize project design and impact assessment.

Commonly used evaluation methods, like outcome-oriented evaluation and impact evaluation, can be implemented through staff training or collaboration with external evaluators. With sufficient fundraising, financing should not pose a significant barrier. These assessments will guide project implementation and future strategies.

6.  Conclusion

The Theory of Change framework offers a systematic approach to program development, evaluation, and implementation, emphasizing the interconnectedness of program activities, outcomes, and contextual factors (Fulbright-Anderson, Kubisch, & Connell, 1998; Chen, 1990, as cited by Alcott 2020). It underscores the critical importance of articulating underlying theories, assumptions, and contextual requirements to drive desired changes in program outcomes.

The analysis of the G&S Science Class and Acorn Science through the lens of Theory of Change provides valuable insights into their transformative strategies and impact on rural primary school science education. Both projects employ distinct levers for change: G&S Science Class leverages the national primary school science curriculum to advocate for student-led inquiry teaching and enhance teacher competencies, while Acorn Science independently develops engaging science courses to ignite student interest and foster transformative learning. The assumptions underlying these projects outline their respective beliefs and challenges. G&S Science Class assumes that enhancing scientific literacy necessitates comprehensive implementation of the national curriculum, facing limitations in equipment suitability and teacher understanding. In contrast, Acorn Science challenges conventional assumptions about curriculum responsibility and resource limitations by focusing on sparking student interest in science.Furthermore, the validity of these programs is underscored by their social impact, engagement strategies, geographical coverage, team stability, and project effectiveness. G&S Science Class excels in professional recognition and educational research, while Acorn Science prioritizes direct student engagement and broader geographical coverage.

To advance these initiatives, embracing the Theory of Change is recommended to clarify change mechanisms, enhance project design, and evaluate outcomes effectively. Additionally, promoting gender equality in science education is essential. Lastly, enhancing program evaluation and outcome orientation is crucial for meaningful impact. Hope these recommendations will guide the future development of both projects, emphasizing continuous improvement in strengthening NGO initiatives and achieving lasting impact in science education.

7.  References

• I acknowledge the use of ChatGPT 3.5 (Open AI, https://chat.openai.com) to help me improve the reference and the use of Google Translate and Deepl to translate some sentences.