象征性官僚代表与公众合作: 来自中国四个公共服务日常场景的实验洞见

文摘 2024-11-04 09:43 北京

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今天为大家带来的是Youlang Zhang, Huan Wang的研究：《象征性官僚代表与公众合作: 来自中国四个公共服务日常场景的实验洞见》。

摘要

代表性官僚制研究探讨了象征性代表性对服务对象态度和行为的潜在影响，即便在官员未直接采取行动的情况下也会产生影响。通过在中国进行的四项共同比较实验（样本为具有全国代表性的1600名参与者），我们分析了五种最常见的身份信号（包括性别、年龄、口音、党派背景及人声与人工智能聊天机器人的差异）在两种官员发起的接触方式和两种客户发起的接触方式中的象征性代表效果。我们的研究结果表明，身份一致性具有异质性的象征性代表效果；服务对象对积极代表性的期望是影响其配合官员意愿的重要中介因素，从而丰富了现有文献的讨论。

Representative bureaucracy studies have explored the potential impact of symbolic representation on clients' attitudes and behaviors, even in the absence of direct action by bureaucrats. Through four original conjoint experiments conducted with a nationally representative sample of 1600 participants in China, we analyze the symbolic representation effects of five most commonly observable identity signals, including gender, age, accent, party affiliation, and human voice (versus AI chatbot), across two types of bureaucrat-initiated contacts and two types of client-initiated contacts. Our findings contribute to the existing literature by demonstrating that identity congruence has heterogeneous symbolic representation effects; clients' expectations about active representation serve as a significant mediating factor influencing their willingness to cooperate with bureaucrats.

引言

INTRODUCTION

被动的官僚代表性在多大程度上影响服务对象的合作意愿？这种影响通过哪些机制产生？理解被动官僚代表性的含义对于公共行政管理至关重要。被动代表性是指机构工作人员的人口特征在多大程度上与其服务对象的特征相符（Mosher 1968）。经典的代表性官僚制研究认为，被动代表性可以转化为主动代表性，即机构员工积极服务其客户利益的行为（Keiser et al. 2002; Long 1952; Meier and Nigro 1976; Mosher 1968; Sowa and Selden 2003; Thompson 1976）。近年来，研究愈加关注象征性代表性，探索被动代表性如何作为一种信号机制，在官员未直接采取行动的情况下，增强服务对象与官员合作的意愿（Headley, Wright, and Meier 2021; Johnston, Alberti, and Kravariti 2024; Mewhirter, McLaughlin, and Calfano 2024; Riccucci and Van Ryzin 2017; Riccucci, Van Ryzin, and Li 2016; Van Ryzin, Riccucci, and Li 2017; Wang 2024; Wright 2022; Wright, Gaozhao, and Houston 2023; Xu and Meier 2022）。从理论角度来看，探究被动代表性影响服务对象合作的机制有助于深化我们对官僚机构、政策执行、客户与政府关系及公共服务结果的理解。从实践角度出发，这类研究可以帮助改革者更有效地设计官僚机构，从而提高公众参与度并减少普通民众获取公共服务的不平等现象。

To what extent does passive bureaucratic representation affect client cooperation, and through what mechanisms does this influence occur? Understanding the implications of passive bureaucratic representation is of paramount importance in public administration. Passive representation refers to the degree to which the demographics of an agency's workforce mirror those of the clients it serves (Mosher 1968). Classic studies on representative bureaucracy posit that passive representation can lead to active representation, wherein agency employees proactively serve the interests of their client counterparts (Keiser et al. 2002; Long 1952; Meier and Nigro 1976; Mosher 1968; Sowa and Selden 2003; Thompson 1976). In recent years, research has increasingly focused on symbolic representation, exploring how passive representation can act as a signaling mechanism that enhances clients' willingness to cooperate with bureaucrats, even in the absence of direct action by the bureaucrats themselves (Headley, Wright, and Meier 2021; Johnston, Alberti, and Kravariti 2024; Mewhirter, McLaughlin, and Calfano 2024; Riccucci and Van Ryzin 2017; Riccucci, Van Ryzin, and Li 2016; Van Ryzin, Riccucci, and Li 2017; Wang 2024; Wright 2022; Wright, Gaozhao, and Houston 2023; Xu and Meier 2022). From a theoretical perspective, exploring the mechanisms through which passive representation influences client cooperation can deepen our understanding of bureaucracy, policy implementation, client-state interactions, and public service outcomes. From a practical standpoint, this line of research can aid reformers in designing bureaucratic institutions more effectively, thereby increasing public participation and reducing unequal access to public services among the general populace.

文献回顾

LITERATURE REVIEW

尽管现有研究对官僚代表性理解做出了重要贡献，但仍存在两个主要局限性。首先，以往研究主要集中在单一身份一致性的代表性效果上，例如性别、种族或民族（An, Song, and Meier 2022; Baniamin and Jamil 2023; Bishu and Kennedy 2020; Cho and Kim 2024; Keiser et al. 2002; Li 2021; Meier 1984）。然而，从这些单一身份设计中得出的结论可能在外部效度上存在局限性，因为在不同的公共服务情境中，个体往往会同时考虑多种身份（Meier 2019, 2023; Oberfield 2014; Vinopal 2020）。确实，将多种身份信号纳入单一分析有助于确定哪些身份标识更具显著性。此外，对不同社会群体中共享身份所引起的不同效应的系统性探索较为有限。因此，需要在考虑多种身份的情况下研究代表性效果，以提升研究发现的普适性和精确性（Van Ryzin, Riccucci, and Li 2017）。

其次，被动代表性如何影响服务对象的合作意愿和共同生产公共服务的参与度的机制尚不清晰。为了全面理解这种动态关系，识别和理解被动代表性与服务对象合作之间的关系中所涉及的因素和过程至关重要。现有研究提供了一些可能的解释，包括信任、合法性、公平性和效能感（Baniamin and Jamil 2023; Christensen 2020; Forman-Rabinovici and Beeri 2024; Johnston, Alberti, and Kravariti 2024; Kang, Chang, and Williams 2022; Riccucci, Van Ryzin, and Lavena 2014; Riccucci, Van Ryzin, and Jackson 2018; Sievert 2021, 2023; Van Ryzin, Riccucci, and Li 2017）。然而，合理推断，服务对象只有在预期官员会展现出积极行为时，才会产生这些主观认知。因此，进一步探讨被动官僚代表性是否以及如何引发这种预期行为具有研究价值。

图：日常客户—国家互动中的象征性表现效应

（翻译自原文图2）

Although previous studies have made significant contributions to the understanding of bureaucratic representation, there are two key limitations. First, prior research has primarily focused on examining the representation effect of a single shared identity, such as gender, race, or ethnicity (An, Song, and Meier 2022; Baniamin and Jamil 2023; Bishu and Kennedy 2020; Cho and Kim 2024; Keiser et al. 2002; Li 2021; Meier 1984). However, the conclusions drawn from these single-identity designs may have limited external validity, as individuals in different public service scenarios often consider multiple identities simultaneously (Meier 2019, 2023; Oberfield 2014; Vinopal 2020). Indeed, incorporating a variety of identity signals within a single analysis allows for the determination of which identity markers are more salient than others. Further, there has been limited systematic exploration of the potentially varied effects induced by shared identities across different social groups. Consequently, there is a need to investigate the representation effect while considering various identities concurrently to enhance the generalizability and precision of the findings (Van Ryzin, Riccucci, and Li 2017).

Secondly, the mechanisms by which passive representation influences clients' willingness to cooperate and engage in co-producing public services remain unclear. It is imperative to identify and understand the underlying factors and processes that mediate the relationship between passive representation and clients' cooperation for a comprehensive grasp of the dynamics involved. Existing research has offered several potential explanations, including trust, legitimacy, fairness, and efficacy (Baniamin and Jamil 2023; Christensen 2020; Forman-Rabinovici and Beeri 2024; Johnston, Alberti, and Kravariti 2024; Kang, Chang, and Williams 2022; Riccucci, Van Ryzin, and Lavena 2014; Riccucci, Van Ryzin, and Jackson 2018; Sievert 2021, 2023; Van Ryzin, Riccucci, and Li 2017). However, it is logical to deduce that clients can only develop these subjective perceptions when they anticipate positive behaviors from bureaucrats. Therefore, it is valuable to further explore whether and how passive bureaucratic representation can elicit such anticipated behaviors.

是的

研究假设‍‍

HYPOTHESES

‍‍‍

假设1：当官员的性别与客户相同时，客户的合作倾向会更高。

假设2：当官员和客户属于相同的年龄群体时，客户的合作倾向会更高。

假设3：当官员和客户使用相同的口音时，客户的合作倾向会更高。

假设4：当官员和客户拥有相同的政党身份时，客户的合作倾向会更高。

假设5：客户更倾向于与真人官员合作，而非人工智能聊天机器人。

假设6a：被动表现的存在与主动表现的感知呈正相关。

假设6b：对主动表现的感知与个人的合作倾向呈正相关。

H1. When the gender of a bureaucrat matches that of the client, the client's inclination to cooperate will be greater.

H2. When a bureaucrat and a client belong to the same age cohort, the client's inclination to cooperate will be greater.

H3. When a bureaucrat and a client share the same accent, the client's inclination to cooperate will be greater.

H4. When a bureaucrat and a client have the same party affiliation, the client's inclination to cooperate will be greater.

H5. Clients are more inclined to cooperate with human bureaucrats in contrast to AI chatbots.

H6a. The presence of passive representation correlates positively with the perception of active representation.

H6b. The perception of active representation correlates positively with individuals' inclination to cooperate.

研究设计‍‍‍‍‍‍‍‍

RESEARCH DESIGN

本研究采用行为公共管理研究方法（Webeck and Lee 2022），通过实验方法拓展现有代表性官僚制文献，探讨多种常见但鲜有研究的身份信号的不同效果。此外，我们通过考察被动代表性是否通过影响个体对主动代表性的期望来塑造其选择行为，进一步完善现有理论。为此，我们对一个具有全国代表性的1600人样本进行了四项共同比较实验，实验情境包括交通拦检中的警察问询、地铁内的身份核查、一站式政府服务中心的访问以及政府热线的互动。在这些情境中，我们设定了性别、年龄、口音、党派背景及人声（与人工智能聊天机器人的差异）等不同的代表性水平。我们评估了参与者对这些情境的反应，并检验了感知到的主动代表性在其中的中介作用。研究结果加深了我们对个体层面的官僚代表性、其象征性效果及推动服务对象合作的机制的理解（Meier and Morton 2015; Moloney, Sanabria-Pulido, and Demircioglu 2023）。这些见解对于致力于提升公共服务质量和促进客户参与的政策制定者、改革者和公务员具有重要参考价值。

Taking a behavioral public administration research approach (Webeck and Lee 2022), this study aims to expand the existing representative bureaucracy literature by using an experimental method to explore the distinct effects of multiple commonly observed but seldom studied identity signals concurrently. Moreover, we refine the existing theory by examining whether passive representation shapes individuals' choices by influencing their expectations of active representation. To this end, we conducted four conjoint experiments with a sample of 1600 participants, which was representative of the population in China. Participants encountered scenarios involving police questioning during a traffic stop, ID checks in the subway, visits to a one-stop government service center, and interactions with a government hotline. Various levels of representation related to gender, age, accent, party affiliation, and human voice (versus AI chatbot) were assigned to these scenarios. We gauged participants' responses to these scenarios and examined the mediating role of perceived active representation. The findings contribute to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of individual-level bureaucratic representation, its symbolic effects, and the mechanisms that drive clients' cooperation (Meier and Morton 2015; Moloney, Sanabria-Pulido, and Demircioglu 2023). These insights are invaluable for policymakers, reformers, and civil servants aiming to enhance public service delivery and foster increased client engagement.

研究发现

FINDINGS

‍

实验结果基于一项全国性样本的1600位中国参与者的回归分析，显示象征性性别表现效应在女性客户中的效果比男性客户更为显著。女性客户对女性官员的积极预期可能源于她们认为女性官员更有可能同情并积极倡导女性的需求，因为她们经常处于相似的弱势地位。这一预期与中国教育领域的研究一致，如Zhang（2019）发现，女性教师的存在对女性学生的结果产生了积极影响，即便没有刻意的干预措施。

此外，象征性年龄表现效应在30岁以下的客户中最为显著，其他年龄群体的客户也表现出与年轻公务员互动的偏好。这一倾向与年轻人通常具备更强技术能力的普遍认知相符（Westerman和Davies 2000）。在需要高级技术技能的客户—国家互动场景中，客户往往更倾向于选择年轻的官员，因为他们被认为效率更高，服务质量更优。

象征性口音表现效应在讲标准普通话的客户中最为显著，反映了更广泛的文化和社会偏见，即偏向于国家标准语言。在涉及地方方言的场景中，尤其是身份验证等场景中，这种效应也具有显著性。口音是个人地理来源或成长背景的标志，是官僚代表性的重要方面，但在文献和实践中往往较少受到关注（Bishu和Kennedy 2020）。在本研究的身份验证情境中，口音的一致性能够增强客户和官员之间的身份认同感和熟悉感，这种语言上的共性有助于建立信任，因为客户认为说相同口音的官员更有可能理解并积极代表他们的利益。当互动以标准普通话进行时，这种表现效应尤其显著，因标准普通话不仅是中国的通用语言，也带有更高社会地位和合法性的含义，进一步影响信任和表现的动态。

基于政党身份的象征性表现效应在中共党员中最为显著。对于这些成员来说，政党身份是其政治身份的关键组成部分，与同为中共党员的公务员互动能产生政治身份共鸣，从而增强合作倾向。这种效应可能源于中共党员之间的共同价值观和意识形态一致性，增强了信任和合作。有趣的是，即便非中共党员的客户也倾向于选择与佩戴中共标志的公务员互动。这一偏好可能源于对中共在治理中的主导地位的认可。经过几十年的意识形态教育和宣传，即便非党员的个人仍可能认为与中共相关的公务员更有资源和权威，并因身份而更加注重效率和服务质量。因此，非党员也倾向于与中共公务员互动，以期获得更有利的结果。这种认可反映了中共作为中国有力和有效治理机构的形象的广泛影响。

在使用政府热线时，客户表现出明显的偏好，与人类代理人互动更甚于AI机器人。这种偏好主要由于人类官员能够更有效地代表公众利益。与AI机器人不同，人类代理人具备情商和共情能力，能够提供AI无法实现的情感支持。此外，人类官员能为互动带来个人色彩，适应客户的具体需求。这些人类特质显著提升了客户的合作意愿和满意度。

最后，实验结果显示，在日常客户—国家互动中，被动表现显著中介了主动表现对客户合作倾向的影响。被动表现的存在，即官僚特征，显著影响了个人在公共服务互动中的预期。当客户预期与官员的互动是积极的时，他们对公平性、可信性、效率和合法性的感知可能得到增强。这种积极预期加深了与官员的情感连接，最终提高了客户的合作意愿。这显示了主动表现在塑造被动表现对客户态度和行为的影响中的关键作用。

Our experimental findings, derived from a series of regression analyses based on a nationally representative sample of 1600 participants in China, reveal that the symbolic gender representation effect is more pronounced for female clients than for male clients. The positive anticipation of female bureaucrats by female clients may stem from the belief that female bureaucrats are more likely to empathize with and actively advocate for the needs of women, who often find themselves in similar disadvantaged positions. This expectation aligns with previous empirical research, such as the study conducted by Zhang (2019) in China's education sector, which found that the presence of female teachers positively influences the outcomes for female students, even in the absence of deliberate efforts to do so.

Additionally, the effect of symbolic age representation is most pronounced among clients under 30, although clients from other age groups also exhibit a preference for interacting with younger civil servants. This inclination aligns with the greater technological proficiency generally attributed to younger individuals compared to older age groups (Westerman and Davies 2000). In scenarios where client-state interactions require advanced technical skills, there tends to be a preference for engaging with younger bureaucrats, who might be perceived as more efficient and likely to deliver higher-quality service.

The symbolic accent representation effect is most pronounced among clients who speak standard Mandarin, illustrating a broader cultural and social bias towards the national standard language. This effect is also significant, albeit to a lesser extent, in scenarios involving local dialects, particularly in contexts such as ID verification. Accent serves as a marker of an individual's geographical origin or upbringing, and while it is a crucial aspect of bureaucratic representation, it often garners less attention in literature and practice (Bishu and Kennedy 2020). In interactions initiated by bureaucracy, such as the ID verification scenario examined in our study, accent congruence can enhance a sense of shared identity and familiarity between clients and officials. This shared linguistic feature fosters trust, as clients perceive that officials who speak the same accent are more likely to understand and actively represent their interests. This representational effect is particularly strong when the interaction occurs in standard Mandarin, which not only serves as the lingua franca of China but also carries connotations of higher social status and legitimacy, further influencing the dynamics of trust and representation.

The symbolic representation effect based on party affiliation is most significant among CPC members. For these members, party affiliation is a key component of their political identity, and engaging with fellow CPC-member civil servants can create a sense of political identity resonance, thereby fostering a stronger inclination to cooperate. This effect might arise from the shared values and ideological alignment that CPC members likely perceive among themselves, enhancing trust and collaboration. Interestingly, even clients who are not affiliated with the CPC tend to prefer interacting with civil servants who display a CPC badge. This preference might be attributed to the recognition of the CPC's dominant role in governance. After decades of pervasive ideological education and widespread propaganda, individuals who are not members of the CPC may still perceive that civil servants affiliated with the party are likely to have better access to resources and authority, and might prioritize efficiency and service quality due to their affiliation. Consequently, even those outside the party often recognize that engaging with CPC-affiliated civil servants could result in more favorable outcomes. This acknowledgment reflects the broad influence of the CPC's established image as a powerful and effective governing body in China.

Clients show a marked preference for interacting with human agents over AI robots when using government hotlines. This preference might be largely due to the superior ability of human bureaucrats to represent the public's interests effectively. Unlike AI robots, human agents possess key interpersonal skills, including emotional intelligence and the capacity for empathy, allowing them to offer emotional support that robots cannot. Additionally, human bureaucrats bring a personal touch to interactions and can adapt their responses to meet the specific needs of individual clients. These human qualities significantly enhance client cooperation and satisfaction.

Finally, our experimental results indicate that perceived active representation significantly mediates the impact of passive representation in daily client-state interactions. The presence of passive representation, marked by bureaucratic traits, significantly influences individuals' expectations of their treatment during public service encounters. When clients anticipate positive interactions with bureaucrats, their perceptions of fairness, trustworthiness, efficiency, and legitimacy might be enhanced. This positive anticipation fosters stronger emotional connections with the bureaucrats, ultimately increasing clients' willingness to cooperate. This demonstrates the crucial role that perceived active representation plays in shaping the effects of passive representation on client attitudes and behaviors.

文章来源：

Zhang, Y. and Wang, H. (2024), Symbolic Bureaucratic Representation and Client Cooperation: Experimental Insights From Four Daily Public Service Scenarios in China. Public Admin.

原文链接：

https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.13042（或点击文末“阅读原文”查看）

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