在组织理论文献中，环境一直是一个甚为重要的研究要素和话题。无论是Thompson （1967）中的理性视角，还是权变理论、群组生态理论、制度理论抑或资源依赖理论，环境永远是绕不开的话题。环境能够赋予组织资源，可以对组织进行选择，影响其演化、变异、存留，也可以给它的活动和生存带来各种困扰或者机遇。
关于组织和环境的关系，两位组织理论大家Graham Astley 和 Andy Van de Ven（1983）曾经对相关的理论做过系统的分类。用微观（Individual Organization）vs宏观（Population of Organizations）以及环境决定论vs自由选择论（Deterministic Orientation vs Voluntaristic Orientation）两个维度，他们做出一个2X2矩阵。
归为宏观决定论的是自然选择观（Natural Selection View）：
Population Ecology
IO Economics
Economic History
归为微观决定论的是系统-结构观（System-Structure View）:
System Theory
Structural Functionalism
Contingency Theory
归为宏观自选论的是集体行动观Collective-Action View):
Human Ecology
Political Economy
Pluralism
归为微观自选论的是战略选择观(Strategic Choice View):
Action Theory
Contemporary Decision Making
Strategic Management.
直接以《组织与环境》为书名的有两本巨著，一个是Lawrence & Lorsch （1967），另外一个是Howard Aldrich（1979）。前者是框架加案例，面向学者以及管理实践读者。后者是纯粹的学术专著，类似Thompson (1967), 也是集大成者式样的理论构建。
L&L（1967）”Organization and Environment：Managing Differentiation and Integration”。副标题聚焦于如何去“管理组织的细分与整合”（微分与积分）。专业分工导致效率与精准。协调整合保证各项职能与活动有效地协作从而共同完成组织的目标。成功的组织往往高度细分并高度整合。没有一种最优的细分抑或整合模式。具体的拿捏在于怎样才能适合外部环境的要求。如此，此书也是所谓权变理论的一个典范呈现。
Aldrich（1979/2008）“Organizations and Environments”，组织和环境用的都是复数。此篇基调是以组织演化的视角和方法来研判组织与环境的关系。环境如何影响组织的生存，组织如何适应调整。Selection。Variation。Adaptation。Retention。这是典型的Organizational Ecology的方法。但John Freeman (ASR,1981)对此书的评价似乎没有那么过分的热情。在指出其不足之处时，提到许多论断缺乏证据。
在此之前，Aldrich还与Jeff Pfeffer （1976）在Annual Review of Sociology合作了一篇极为精彩的论文“The Environments of Organizations”，基本上预示了此书的很多观点。可以说，Aldrich的工作直接参与、贡献并代表了那些后来著名的理论流派，比如John Freeman和Michael Hannan （1977）为代表的Population Ecology理论；Pfeffer和Slanacik（1978）Resource Dependent Theory。
但我个人感觉，好像没谁把Aldrich真正当作这些理论的主创者和拥有者。毫无疑问，搞社会学的都知道Aldrich的贡献和价值。新入行的管理学后生们估计还以为Howard同学是一个弄Entrepreneurship的老战士。
看看Pfeffer与Miles & Snow也有合作。这帮OT的学者也经常提到John Child （1972）的战略选择理论。系统论仍有市场，权变理论方兴未艾。可以说，1970年代中后期是OT理论发展的黄金时代。
回到今天的主题，组织的环境在组织理论中的呈现与处理。从1958年Dill正式关注所谓的Task Environment（任务环境）开始，不同的学者给出了不同的定义，强调了不同的维度。任务环境指的是直接影响企业日常核心活动的那些要素的组合。不是环境中所有的刺激企业都要对之进行反应。
下面是一个对任务环境不同构成维度的总结。文献回顾终止于1988年。为啥？因为这里整的是学说史，而不是最新研究小窍门。当你看到Mike Hitt老师闪亮登场时，你就应该意识到游戏已然进入下半场了，开始测量和实证了。
Dill (1958)：任务环境的六大维度
Degree of unity or homogeneity
Degree of stability
Disruptiveness of environmental inputs
Routing of organizational inputs within the organization
Complexity of inputs
Demands for direct personal interaction
Emery & Trist (1965)：
The Causal Texture of Environment：四种不同织体的环境。环境有形状，有颗粒度，先维度，甚至是多维的。 如此生猛，不仅让人想起Dan Levinthal之类后来整的所谓的陡峭崎岖的风景（Rugged Landscape）。
Placid, Randomized: Goods and bads are relatively unchanging in themselves and are randomly distributed. Example: Perfect competition
Placid, Clustered: Goods and bads hang together in certain ways. Example: Imperfect competition.
Disturbed-Reactive Environment: More than one organization of the same kind. Example: Oligopolistic.
Turbulent Field: Dynamics not only arises out of the component organizations but also the field itself. The ground is in motion. Example：A company of soldiers marching in step over a bridge.
Thompson (1967):
Homogeneous vs Heterogeneous
Stable vs Shifting
Lawrence & Lorsch (1967):
Diversity
Dynamism
Duncan (1972)
Simple-Complex
Static-Dynamic
John Child (1972):
Illiberality
Variability
Complexity.
Starbuck (1976):
(1)the directness of interaction between an organization and elements of its environment
(2) whether or not the information describing the environment was derived objectively
(from disinterested outside observers) or subjectively (from members of the organization
Aldrich（1979）：六大维度
Environmental Capacity: resources availability
Homogeneity/Heterogeneity: degree of similarity among the environments elements
Stability/Instability: degree of turnover of the elements
Consensus/Dissensus: degree to which an organization's claim to a specific domain is disputed or recognized by other organizations
Concentration/ Dispersion: degree to which resources and other elements are evenly distributed over the range of the organization's domain
Environmental Turbulence: extent to which the task environment of an organization is disturbed by an increasing rate of interconnection between elements and trends.
Tung (1979)：著名华人学者Tung老师对此已有贡献。
Complexity
Change rate
Routineness of problem/opportunity states
Dess and Beard (1984)： 组织环境的三维特点
Munificence: capacity（丰沛性）
Dynamism: stability-instability, turbulence （动态性）
Complexity: homogeneity-heterogeneity, concentration-dispersion （复杂性）
这似乎应该是迄今为止大家最为经常采用的标准。
Keats & Hitt（1988）
Munificence
Stability
Complexity
A Concise Reference of Classics on Organizational Environment
Aldrich, Howard E. 1979. Organizations and Environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Aldrich, Howard E., and Jeffrey Pfeffer. 1976 "Environments of organizations." Annual Review of Sociology, 2:79-105.
Astley, W.G. and Van de Ven, A.H., 1983. Central perspectives and debates in organization theory.Administrative science quarterly, pp.245-273.
Child, John. 1972 "Organization structure, environment and performance: The role of strategic choice." Sociology, 6: 1 -22.
Dill, William R. 1958 "Environment as an influence on managerial autonomy." Administrative Science Quarterly, 2: 409-443.
Duncan, Robert B. 1972 "Characteristics of organizational environments and perceived environmental uncertainty." Administrative Science Quarterly, 17: 313-327.
Emery, F. E., and E. L. Trist.1965 "The causal texture of organizational environments."
Human Relations, 18: 21-32.
Hirsch, Paul. 1975 "Organizational effectiveness and the institutional environment." Administrative Science Quarterly, 20: 327-344.
Jurkovich, Ray. 1974 "A core typology of organizational environments." Administrative Science Quarterly, 19: 380-394.
Keats, B.W. and Hitt, M.A., 1988. A causal model of linkages among environmental dimensions, macro organizational characteristics, and performance.Academy of Management Journal, 31 (3), pp.570-598.
Lawrence, Paul and Losrch, Jay.1967. Organization and Environment: Managing Differentiation and Integration. Boston: HBS.
Miles, Raymond E., Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer 1974 "Organization-environment: Concepts and issues." Industrial Relations, 13: 244-264.
Osborn, R. N., & Hunt, J. G. 1974. Environment and Organizational Effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 19(2), 231–246.
Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Gerald Salancik. 1978. The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective. New York: Harper & Row.
Starbuck, William H.1976 "Organizations and their environments." In Marvin D. Dunnette (ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology: 1069-1123.Chicago: Rand McNally.
Terreberry, Shirley. 1968. "The evolution of organizational environments." Administrative Science Quarterly, 12: 590-613.
Tung, Rosalie L. 1979 "Dimensions of organizational environments: An exploratory study of their impact on organization structure." Academy of Management Journal, 22: 672-693.
必须提一句，今晚蛋交在Markus Stenz调教下弄的贝爷第五完成度相当好，声音罕见地translucent和taut，如chamber orchestra。
但这也正是我不喜欢的处理。俺是冲着重口味去的。不够weighty and rugged。整个是把威严持重的贝五弄成温莎的风流娘们儿了。
想在网上找个配图，搜索环境，无论中文还是英文，出来的全是环保语境下的环境画面。这是现在PC情景下的风流。
