往期回顾 | 写在过去的未来建筑课

现代都市拥有水泥路面和玻璃幕墙的摩天大厦，却适应不了意料之中的气温上升。中东、 海湾地区和非洲国家传统建筑的设计宗旨是遮阳防晒，促进空气流通，可以启发人们在世 界其他地区建设可持续性更强、更加环保的人类住区。

Modern cities, with their paved roads and glass towers, are hardly adapted to cope with the expected rise in temperatures. Designed to provide shade and air circulation, traditional buildings in the Middle East, Gulf and African countries could inspire  more sustainable and environmentally-friendly habitats in other parts of the world.

阿明·哈巴贝

Amin Al-Habaibeh

由于全球变暖和温室气体增加，世界各地的城市越来越有可能出现极端气温。海湾国家尤其如此，进入 21 世纪， 海湾国家的气温预计将升到 50℃以 上。世界其他地区，特别是欧洲，同样没能避开热浪的侵袭。2019 年夏季， 法国、英国和瑞士等国的气温都创下了有史以来的最高纪录。

As a result of global warming and the rise in greenhouse gas levels, cities across the world are increasingly likely to be exposed to extreme temperatures. This is particularly true in the Gulf countries, where temperatures are expected to rise to over 50 ℃ during the twenty-first century. But these heat surges have not spared other regions of the world – particularly Europe, where during the summer of 2019, record temperatures were reached in France, the United Kingdom and Switzerland, among other countries.

现代生活方式和建筑都离不开空调和混凝土、沥青、玻璃等现代材料。但这些材料不适合高温。玻璃可以将太阳辐射反射到周边，形成热岛，并且可能造成室内温室效应。沥青吸收了大部分太阳光，将其转化为热流，从而加剧了局地环境变暖。另一方面，混凝土在生产过程中消耗了大量能源， 通过碳排放的方式导致全球变暖。此外，现代城市规划不支持公共交通，使得私家车成为必需品，由此造成了更严重的污染，也形成了更多的局部热岛，如果将建筑的空调系统一并考虑在内，问题就更严重了。

Today, lifestyles and architecture are dependent on air conditioning, and modern materials such as concrete, asphalt or glass. These materials, however, are not adapted to high temperatures. Glass reflects solar radiation to the surrounding area, creating heat islands and the risk of a greenhouse effect inside buildings. Asphalt also absorbs a large part of the sun's rays, which it converts into a heat flux – thus contributing to warming the local environment. Concrete, on the other hand, consumes a lot of energy during its production, contributing to global warming through carbon emissions. In addition, modern urban planning does not favour public transportation. This makes private cars a necessity, creating more pollution and localized heat islands, especially when combined with the air-conditioning systems of buildings. 

在采用现代生活方式之前，地球上的大多数人与周边环境历来相安无事，和谐共处。他们当中有绿洲中的农民、农业或渔业村落的居民、在沙漠中搭起帐篷的贝都因人或其他游牧部落，还有城市居民。

Historically, before the adoption of the modern way of life, most people on the planet lived in a more harmonious way with their environment. They were either farmers within oases, agricultural or fishing village communities, Bedouins or nomads living in tents in the desert, or urban dwellers living in cities.

当年的人们在建造房屋时就地取材。人们过着可持续的生活，适应各自的生活方式，其根基正是今天所谓的“循环经济”。四处迁徙、放牧牲畜 的贝都因人居住在帐篷里，这些帐篷是为他们挡风遮雨的最佳方式，同时兼具上乘的灵活性。帐篷的设计和搭建原理是为了让帐篷与周边环境相得益彰。用山羊毛和绵羊毛等现成资源 编织而成的这些帐篷，在阿拉伯语里被称为“毛屋子”。

The materials they selected to build their dwellings came from the environment. They were  sustainable, adapted to their way of life, and based on what is now termed a circular economy. Due to their travelling lifestyles and animal herding, the Bedouins lived in tents that were optimized for protection against the weather, and for flexibility. The tents were designed and built to function effectively with the environment – they were woven using available resources like goat hair and sheep’s wool.  This is why they are called “houses of hair” in Arabic.

环保材料

Environmentally-friendly materials

搭建帐篷的材料有利于空气流通。纤维在变湿时会膨胀起来，具备防水作用，是抵御阴雨天的理想选择。在天气炎热干燥时，贝都因人会用水打湿帐篷及其四周，同时把其他布料和地毯也打湿，通过水分蒸发来降低温度。帐篷的隔热性能绝佳，在炎炎夏日可以带来阵阵清凉，在寒冬只需点燃一小堆火，就可以留住温暖。我们为什么不将类似的材料用在现代建筑上，让温度更加舒适宜人呢？

The tent’s material allows the air to circulate. The fibres become swollen and waterproof when wet, which is ideal during the rainy weather. In the hot and dry weather, the Bedouins would wet the tent and its surrounding area, and also humidify additional pieces of cloth and rugs to reduce temperatures by water evaporation. The tent’s high insulation capabilities allow for cool conditions in the summer, and warmth in the winter, created with a small fire. Nothing prevents us from using similar materials to create modern architecture, to make temperatures more bearable.

另一方面，旧式建筑往往采用非常厚实的墙壁，使用石灰石和天然泥浆等天然环保材料，有时还会在其中掺入当地特有的沙漠植物。建筑材料由此获得了极高的热容，可以调节建筑物的温度。这种材料的优点是能够在夜间吸收湿气，而湿气会在晴热的天气里蒸发，从而达到必要的散热效果。科威特杰赫拉省的红色宫殿将这种效果体现得淋漓尽致，这是海湾地区古代建筑和建筑技术的杰出代表。

The buildings of the past, on the other hand, were designed with very thick walls, using natural and environmentally-friendly materials such as limestone and natural mud, mixed with local desert plants in some cases. This provided a construction material with a high thermal capacity to regulate the temperature of the buildings. The material had the advantage of being able to absorb humidity during the night-time, which would evaporate during the hot and sunny days, to provide the required cooling effect. This effect is evident at the Red Palace in Al-Jahra, Kuwait – an excellent example of the architecture and building technology that once existed in the Gulf region.

在温暖的气候条件下，城市和建筑物的设计宗旨是遮阳防晒，减少太阳辐射产生的直接或间接热增益，调节建筑物的温度，增强空气流通，以便散热。街道上铺设天然石材，或者干脆只铺一层沙子。与今天采用的沥青相比，天然石材不会蓄热，在高温条件下的表现要好得多。由于街巷狭窄，建筑物彼此相接，暴露在阳光下的土地面积与总建筑面积的比率被压缩到最小，白天的热增量也保持在最低水平。

In warm climates, cities and buildings were designed to optimize shade, reduce the direct or indirect thermal gain of sun radiation, regulate building temperatures and enhance air circulation for cooling. The streets were paved with natural stones, or simply left covered with sand. That meant they reacted much better to high temperatures without storing heat, as is the case with the asphalt used today. With the narrow roads and alleyways, and buildings built adjacent to each other, the ratio of the area exposed to the sun relative to the total volume of the buildings was reduced to a minimum – as was the heat gain during the day.

遮阳通风

Opting for shade and air

建筑物内部辟有庭院，大多数庭院四周有房间或墙壁环绕。由于周边的房间遮挡住了大部分阳光，庭院为晚间和傍晚时分的社交活动提供了宽敞的区域。在大多数情况下，中央庭院里点缀着树木、喷泉或水井，这些喷泉和水井也可用来收集雨水。时值正午，庭院起到烟囱的作用，推动热空气上升，同时带动周围房间中的冷空气下沉补充，从而形成空气流通， 起到冷却效果。

Buildings were designed with internal courtyards surrounded by rooms or walls – in most cases, from all sides. This created a large area for social activities in the late afternoons and at night, due to the maximization of shade provided by the surrounding rooms. In most cases, the central courtyard contained trees and a fountain or a well, which could also be used to collect rainwater. At midday, the courtyard functioned as a chimney for the hot air to rise and be replaced by cooler air from the surrounding rooms, improving air circulation and the cooling effect.

这类建筑在叙利亚的大马士革和西班牙的安达卢西亚非常普遍。来自枣椰树的轻质材料遮蔽了狭窄的街巷。墙壁的质地和沙石色调减少了辐射热的吸收和散发。通过房间的作用，形成了街道和建筑物庭院之间的空气流通。

This type of architecture was very common in Damascus, Syria, and in Andalusia, Spain. The narrow streets could be covered with lightweight materials from date palms. This improved air circulation between the streets and courtyards of the buildings, via the rooms. The texture and the sandy colour of the walls limited the absorption and emission of the radiating heat.

在以往，玻璃并不是常见的建筑材料。有些房间只有两扇窗户，其中一个是小天窗，开在很高的位置，可以保持空气流通和自然采光，同时又保全了隐私；第二扇窗户较大，通常一直关着，木制百叶窗既让新鲜空气进入房间，又可保护隐私。

Glass was not a common building material in the past. Some rooms had only two windows. The first was a small skylight, placed very high, and kept open for air circulation and natural light, while maintaining privacy. A second larger window was usually kept closed, with wooden shutters allowing a flow of air into the room, while protecting privacy.

花格窗屏（Mashrabiyya）是带有雕花细木格的滑轴窗，通常安装在建筑物的顶层，可确保空气流通，防止阳光直射。在埃及、沙特阿拉伯的赫贾兹地区和伊拉克等中东很多地区的建筑物上都可以看到花格窗屏。在伊拉克，这种窗户被称为 roshan 或 shanasheel。为实现自然通风，海湾地区的一些建筑物设有风塔，可以根据风向决定打开或关闭天花板上的风道，功能与现代空气冷却系统类似。

The mashrabiyya, a projecting window with carved wooden latticework, usually located on the top storeys of buildings, ensures better air circulation and protects against direct exposure to the sun. This was a common feature of buildings in many regions of the Middle East, including Egypt, the Hejaz region in Saudi Arabia, and Iraq – where the windows are known as roshan or shanasheel. Some buildings in the Gulf had a wind tower to create natural ventilation, where it was possible to open and close doors in the ceiling, depending on the wind direction – performing a similar function to that of modern air-cooling systems.

建筑物的其他设计特色还包括高层结构和回廊，目的都是尽可能遮阳防晒和增加空气流通。这些建筑结构通常与圆顶结合使用，以增加内部空气容量，减少外部热增益。这背后的设计原理是要形成热差，无论实际风速如何，时时都可以带来习习凉风。

Other building design characteristics were high structures and cloisters, to maximize shade and enhance air circulation. They were often used with domes, to increase the air volume internally, and decrease external thermal gain. The idea was to create a thermal differential that caused a cooling breeze, regardless of the actual wind speed.

与自然共生

Symbiosis with nature

在非洲，人们至今仍在建造土屋。小屋结构简单，采用粘土和茅草等可持续材料，不仅可以实现被动冷却， 而且建造速度快，价格低廉，可以循环利用。马丹人（又称沼泽阿拉伯人） 在伊拉克南部的沼泽中搭建起来的传 统芦苇棚屋也是如此，这些棚屋独特的设计和结构确保了空气流通。

In Africa, mud huts are still being built today. With a sustainable and simple design made from clay and thatch, the huts not only provide passive cooling, but are also quick to build, affordable, and recyclable. The same is true of the traditional reed houses made by the Madan people, or Marsh Arabs,(link is external) (link is external)in the swamps of southern Iraq – their unique design and structure provide protection with enhanced air circulation.

在约旦的佩特拉，纳巴泰人利用地面的热惯性，将人类与自然的和谐共生进一步发扬光大。在布局巧妙的城市里，纳巴泰人修建了新颖的住宅和高效的雨水收集系统。原始居民利用当地的山脉，在半山腰凿石建屋，确保室内冬暖夏凉。现代建筑则与此不同——现代建筑物的温度会随季节变化而起伏。

In Petra, Jordan, the Nabatean people took this symbiosis with nature even further, by using the thermal inertia of the ground. They created an ingeniously planned city, with innovative dwellings and an efficient rainwater harvesting system. The original inhabitants took advantage of the natural mountains in the area, carving out their dwellings in the mountainside. This ensured well-regulated temperatures in both the summer and the winter – unlike in modern buildings, where temperatures fluctuate with the season.

在其他地方也可以看到这种利用地面热惯性的类似建筑和原理，例如，土耳其的卡帕多西亚；西纳瓜族印第安人在美国亚利桑那州蒙特苏玛堡的悬崖上开凿的住所；以及在美国新墨西哥州的桑卡维，在质地松软的凝灰岩上人工雕凿而成的洞穴和道路。

Similar structures and concepts using the ground’s thermal inertia can also be found in Cappadocia, Turkey; the cliff dwellings of the Sinagua Indians at Montezuma Castle in Arizona, and the cavates, or man-made caves, and pathways carved from soft tuff rock at Tsankawi, New Mexico – both in the US.

地下穴居是最令人着迷的古代建筑设计之一。在突尼斯南部柏柏尔人聚居的马特玛塔村，人们通常会在丘陵地带挖出一个大坑，在坑底向四周开凿洞穴作为房间，以坑作为中央庭院。这种设计的隔热性能绝佳。1977 年，其中一处马特玛塔住宅作为天行者卢克在影片中虚构的荒漠星球塔图因上的家，出现在《星球大战第四集：新希望》里。这里现已改建为一家酒店。

One of the most fascinating historic architectural designs, the underground troglodyte dwellings, can be found in the Berber village of Matmata, in southern Tunisia. Built by digging a large pit in the ground, usually on a hilly site, caves, which serve as rooms, are carved out from the central pit, which becomes a central courtyard. This design ensures excellent thermal insulation. One of the Matmata dwellings, now converted into a hotel, featured in the 1977 film, Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope, as the home of Luke Skywalker on the fictional desert planet, Tatooine.  

调整生活方式，是人们在以往应对极端天气状况的另一种办法。人们在日出之前就开始一天的工作，从中午到下午一直留在室内躲避骄阳，当温度下降时才恢复工作和社交活动。时至今日，这种文化在中东和西班牙依然存在，当地人都有午休的习惯。饮用水储存在陶罐或是动物皮革制成的水囊中，置于阴凉处。蒸发过程对于储存的水和周边环境都会产生冷却效应。

Adapting their lifestyles was yet another way that people dealt with extreme weather conditions in the past. The working day began just before dawn, and people sought refuge from the midday sun until the late afternoon – when they resumed their business and socializing in cooler temperatures. This culture is still practised in the Middle East and Spain, where a siesta is observed. Drinking water is stored in clay jars or water bags made of animal skin, and kept in the shade. The evaporation process creates a cooling effect for both the stored water and the surroundings.

人们的衣服以天然材料制成，款式宽松是为了有助于降温和空气流通，同时覆盖大部分身体，以防止晒伤。男性和女性往往用围巾来保护头部和面部，戴围巾是为了减少呼吸过程中的水分流失、阻挡灰尘、防止中暑和皮肤老化。这种多用途织物因穿戴者的性别、所在地区和设计方法各异而名称不同，但无一例外都是保护人们健康的重要手段。

People dressed in clothes made from natural materials – the loose-fitting styles were designed to enhance cooling and air circulation, while covering most of the body to prevent sunburn. The heads and faces of both men and women were most often protected by scarves – designed to reduce water loss through breathing, filter dust, protect from sunstroke and prevent aging of the skin. This versatile fabric is known by different names, depending on gender, region and design – in all cases, it serves as an important device for health protection.

向传统概念寻求现代解决方案

Modern solutions from traditional concepts

在欧洲，人们利用地面的热惯性，将葡萄酒储存在温度保持在一定范围内的酒窖里。可以进一步利用这个原理，在炎热和寒冷的天气中调节温度。将传统设计融入现代建筑，可能是应对气候变化的解决方案之一。例如，西班牙塞维利亚的一些现代建筑物巧妙地利用了传统建筑结构，取得了很好的效果。庭院中央设有喷泉，四周有树木和建筑环绕，可以有效地降低温度。

In Europe, people have used wine cellars to preserve wine at a specific range of temperatures, using the thermal inertia of the ground. This concept could be enhanced to provide regulated temperature in both hot and cold weather. Incorporating traditional designs into modern architecture may be yet another solution for tackling climate change. The use of traditional architecture has worked well for some modern buildings in Seville, Spain, for example. A water fountain in the middle of a courtyard surrounded by trees and the building structure, works well to reduce the temperature.

“马斯达尔城”是阿拉伯联合酋长 国阿布扎比的一个城市规划项目，城中采用了花格窗屏、狭窄的街道和传统色彩，力争将古代经验与现代技术结合起来。

Masdar City, a planned urban project in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, has sought to combine lessons from the past with modern technologies – with the use of mashrabiyya windows, narrow streets and traditional colours.

其他海湾国家也正在着手设计可持续的生态建筑。由于不断开展研究，同时得益于建筑和路面材料、建筑设计和城市规划、隔热技术的改进以及可再生能源的使用，海湾地区和其他热带国家的城市能够在大幅度降低碳排放和减少使用化石燃料的同时，维持舒适的生活方式。

Other Gulf countries are also working to design sustainable eco-buildings. With ongoing research and the improvement of building and pavement materials, building design and  urban planning, insulation and the use of renewable energy, cities in the Gulf and other  countries with high temperatures are able to maintain their comfortable lifestyles – with considerably lower levels of carbon emissions and fossil fuel use.

预计欧洲未来的气温将在酷热和严寒之间波动，人们首先要做的就是增加墙体的厚度，铺设隔热材料和天然材料。这样做可以减少冬季取暖和夏季使用空调的需求。

In Europe, where temperatures are expected to fluctuate between extreme heat and cold in the future, a good start would be to increase the thickness of building walls by adding insulation and natural materials. This would reduce the need for heating in winter,  and air conditioning in the summer.

幸好，随着温度的上升，人们可以更多地使用可再生的太阳能。在大多数家庭，在改善隔热性能的同时使用光伏太阳能，可以提供空调运行所需的电力。但这样做会在公路沿线形成热岛，特别是沥青公路。目前已经出现了这种情况。种植更多树木将有助于调节温度，营造凉爽的环境。

Fortunately, the rise in temperatures also allows for an increase in renewable solar energy. In most homes, the use of photovoltaic solar energy combined with better insulation could provide the power needed to run air-conditioning systems. But this would create heat islands on the roads – particularly those made of asphalt, as is currently the case. Planting more trees would help to regulate temperatures in these conditions, and provide a cooler environment.

预计欧洲未来的气温将在酷热和严寒之间波动，人们首先要做的就是增加墙体的厚度，铺设隔热材料和天然材料。这样做可以减少冬季取暖和夏季使用空调的需求。幸好，随着温度的上升，人们可 以更多地使用可再生的太阳能。在大多数家庭，在改善隔热性能的同时使用光伏太阳能，可以提供空调运行所需的电力。但这样做会在公路沿线形成热岛，特别是沥青公路。目前已经出现了这种情况。种植更多树木将有助于调节温度，营造凉爽的环境。

The use of insulation would also reduce air-conditioning loads and electricity consumption. Natural or innovative new materials that absorb moisture and increase thermal capacity could regulate heat gain and aid the natural cooling process. Intelligent urban planning that simulates old cities could make the use of clean public transportation a more feasible option. Since the temperature of sea-water is more stable than that of air, replacing existing air-conditioning systems with large-scale cooling and heating systems at the district level could provide a sustainable alternative. The same technology could also be applied to river water and water from flooded coal mines.

人们从世界各地的传统建筑中可以学到很多，这些经验有助于我们学会欣赏世界各地的遗产，同时还可以帮助我们将其中部分知识用于未来的建筑设计和城市发展规划。几百年来，人们利用巧妙的技术和就地取材获得的可持续材料，在设计建筑物时在供暖和制冷两方面都达到了可持续的标准。要为后世子孙减缓全球变暖，我们必须将这些经验与现代技术相融合，建设可持续的零碳城市。

There are many lessons to be learned from traditional buildings around the world. These lessons will help us to appreciate our global heritage – while aiding us to transfer some of this knowledge to the design of future buildings and urban developments.  Over centuries, people have designed buildings to be sustainable in terms of heating and cooling requirements, using ingenious techniques and sustainable materials sourced from the local environment. If we want to reduce global warming for future generations, we must integrate these lessons with our modern technologies to create sustainable and zero-carbon cities.

阿明·哈巴贝 

Amin Al-Habaibeh 

英国人，英国诺丁汉特伦特大学建筑、设计和建筑环境学院智能工程系统教授，兼任该所大学创新和可持续建筑环境技术（iSBET）研究小组负责人。 

Professor of Intelligent Engineering Systems at the School of Architecture, Design and the Built Environment, Nottingham Trent University in the United Kingdom, Amin Al-Habaibeh (United Kingdom) also heads the university’s Innovative and Sustainable Built Environment Technologies (iSBET) research group.

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