15 Logical Fallacies to Know, With Definitions and Examples
You've seen them on social media.
你在社交媒体上见过它们.
You've heard them in movie dialogue.
你在电影对话中听过它们.
Heck, you've probably even used them yourself.
嘿, 你自己可能也用过它们.
They're logical fallacies,
those not-quite logically sound statements that might seem solid at first glance,
but crumble the moment you give them a second thought.
它们是逻辑谬误,
那些乍一看似乎很合理,
但一经仔细推敲就会崩溃的论点.
Logical fallacies are everywhere.
逻辑谬误无处不在.
Once you know how to recognize them,
you'll notice just how common they are-and how they can undermine the point their writer is attempting to make.
一旦你知道如何识别它们,
你会注意到它们有多么常见,
以及它们如何破坏作者试图表达的观点.
Being able to identify logical fallacies in others' writing as well as in your own will make you a more critical thinker,
which in turn will make you a stronger writer and reader.
能够识别别人的写作和你自己写作中的逻辑谬误会让你成为一个更具批判性思维的人,
这反过来会使你成为一个更强大的作家和读者.
Say what you mean
表达你的意思
What is a logical fallacy?
什么是逻辑谬误?
A logical fallacy is an argument that can be disproven through reasoning.
逻辑谬误是一个可以通过推理被驳倒的论点.
This is different from a subjective argument or one that can be disproven with facts;
for a position to be a logical fallacy,
it must be logically flawed or deceptive in some way.
这与主观论点或可以通过事实驳倒的论点不同;
一个立场要成为逻辑谬误,
它必须在某种程度上逻辑上有缺陷或具有欺骗性.
Compare the following two disprovable arguments.
比较以下两个可以被驳倒的论点.
Only one of them contains a logical fallacy:
只有一个包含逻辑谬误:
If you go outside without a coat,
you'll catch a cold.
如果你不穿外套出门, 你会感冒.
If you go outside without a coat,
you'll catch a cold and infect the rest of the family.
如果你不穿外套出门, 你会感冒并传染给家里其他人.
Then your sister will have to miss class and she'll get a bad grade and fail her course.
然后你妹妹会错过课程, 成绩变差, 最终挂科.
Can you spot the logical fallacy in the second argument?
It's a slippery slope fallacy,
a position that claims that very specific consequences will follow an action.
你能找出第二个论点中的逻辑谬误吗?
这是一个滑坡谬误,
认为一个行动会引发一系列非常具体的后果.
Although both statements can be proven wrong by going outside without a coat and staying perfectly healthy (and by pointing to the proven fact that the only way to catch a cold is to be exposed to a virus),
the first one is simply incorrect,
not logically flawed.
虽然这两种说法都可以通过在不穿外套出门并保持健康(以及指出感冒只能通过暴露于病毒来传染的事实)来证明是错误的,
第一个只是错误的,
并不是逻辑上有缺陷的.
The history of logical fallacies
逻辑谬误的历史
Logical fallacies are likely as old as language itself,
but they were first recognized and cataloged as such in the Nyāya-Sūtras,
the foundational text of the Nyāya school of Hindu philosophy.
逻辑谬误可能和语言本身一样古老,
但它们首先在<<正理经>>中被识别和分类,
这本书是印度正理学派的基础文本.
This text,
written somewhere between the 6th century BCE and the 2nd century CE and attributed to Akṣapāda Gautama,
identified five distinct ways that an argument could be logically flawed.
这本书写于公元前6世纪至公元2世纪之间,
由阿克沙帕达·高塔玛所著,
辨识出了五种论点可能在逻辑上有缺陷的方式.
Greek philosopher Aristotle also wrote about logical fallacies.
希腊哲学家亚里士多德也写过关于逻辑谬误的内容.
He identified thirteen fallacies,
divided into verbal and material fallacies,
in his work Sophistical Refutations.
他在他的<<诡辩论证>>中辨识了十三种谬误,
分为语言谬误和材料谬误.
By Aristotle's definition,
a verbal fallacy is one where the language used is ambiguous or incorrect,
and a material fallacy is an argument that involves faulty or flawed reasoning.
根据亚里士多德的定义,
语言谬误是使用模棱两可或不正确语言的谬误,
而材料谬误是涉及错误或有缺陷推理的论点.
Today,
our understanding of logical fallacies comes from these sources as well as contributions from later scholars like Richard Whately and Francis Bacon.
今天,
我们对逻辑谬误的理解来源于这些资料以及后来的学者如理查德·惠特利和弗朗西斯·培根的贡献.
Where can I find logical fallacies?
在哪里可以找到逻辑谬误?
You'll find logical fallacies just about anywhere you find people debating and using rhetoric,
especially in spaces that aren't academic or professional in nature.
你几乎可以在任何有人辩论和使用修辞的地方找到逻辑谬误,
特别是在非学术或非专业性质的场所.
In fact,
we can almost guarantee that you've encountered logical fallacies on social media,
especially in the comments under divisive posts.
事实上,
我们几乎可以保证你在社交媒体上遇到过逻辑谬误,
特别是在争议性帖子下的评论中.
But keep in mind that they can and often do appear in academic writing,
especially in the kinds of writing where the author has to defend a position,
like argumentative essays and persuasive writing.
但请记住,
它们也会出现在学术写作中,
尤其是在作者必须捍卫立场的写作中,
如议论文和说服性写作中.
They can even show up in expository writing.
它们甚至可能出现在说明文写作中.
Logical fallacies aren't restricted to just one age group,
political affiliation, gender, race, religion,
subculture, or other shared characteristic-they're universally human.
逻辑谬误不限于任何年龄段,
政治派别, 性别, 种族, 宗教,
亚文化或其他共同特征--它们是普遍存在于人类中的.
Our brains aren't perfect,
and even smart people can fall prey to making logically inconsistent statements and arguments.
我们的头脑并不完美,
即使是聪明的人也会犯下逻辑不一致的陈述和论点.
Usually,
people make these kinds of statements because they haven't taken the time to think through them logically,
not because they intend to make flawed arguments.
通常,
人们发表这些陈述是因为他们没有花时间通过逻辑思考,
而不是因为他们有意制造有缺陷的论点.
But in some cases,
the writer or speaker does intend to make a flawed argument,
usually in an attempt to sway readers' opinions or make their opposition look worse.
但在某些情况下,
作者或演讲者确实有意制造有缺陷的论点,
通常是试图影响读者的意见或让对手显得更糟.
The best way to avoid making logical fallacies in your own writing is to familiarize yourself with them and learn how to recognize them.
避免在自己写作中出现逻辑谬误的最好方法是熟悉它们并学习如何识别它们.
That way,
they'll stick out to you when you're reading your first draft,
and you'll see exactly where your writing needs thoughtful revision.
这样,
当你阅读自己的初稿时,
它们会突显出来,
你会看到你的写作需要在哪里进行深思熟虑的修改.
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What are 15 common types of logical fallacies?
什么是15种常见的逻辑谬误?
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1 Ad hominem
人身攻击
An ad hominem fallacy is one that attempts to invalidate an opponent's position based on a personal trait or fact about the opponent rather than through logic.
人身攻击谬误是试图通过基于对手的个人特征或事实,
而不是通过逻辑来使对手的立场无效的谬误.
Example:Katherine is a bad choice for mayor because she didn't grow up in this town.
例子:凯瑟琳不适合当市长, 因为她不是在这个镇上长大的.
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2 Red herring
红鲱鱼
A red herring is an attempt to shift focus from the debate at hand by introducing an irrelevant point.
红鲱鱼是试图通过引入一个无关的观点来转移辩论焦点.
Example:Losing a tooth can be scary,
but have you heard about the Tooth Fairy?
例子:掉牙可能很可怕, 但你听说过牙仙吗?
3 Straw man
稻草人
A straw man argument is one that argues against a hyperbolic,
inaccurate version of the opposition rather than their actual argument.
稻草人论点是指攻击对手夸张的, 不准确的版本,
而不是他们的实际论点.
Example:Erin thinks we need to stop using all plastics,
right now,
to save the planet from climate change.
例子:艾琳认为我们需要立即停止使用所有塑料, 以拯救地球免于气候变化.
4 Equivocation
模棱两可
An equivocation is a statement crafted to mislead or confuse readers or listeners by using multiple meanings or interpretations of a word or simply through unclear phrasing.
模棱两可:模棱两可是指通过使用一个词的多重含义或解释,
或通过不明确的措辞,
来误导或混淆读者或听众的陈述.
Example:While I have a clear plan for the campus budget that accounts for every dollar spent,
my opponent simply wants to throw money at special interest projects.
例子:虽然我对校园预算有一个清晰的计划, 涵盖了每一笔开支,
但我的对手只是想把钱扔给特殊利益项目.
5 Slippery slope
滑坡谬误:
With a slippery slope fallacy,
the arguer claims a specific series of events will follow one starting point,
typically with no supporting evidence for this chain of events.
滑坡谬误是指论者声称某一特定事件将导致一系列后续事件,
通常没有支持这一事件链的证据.
Example:If we make an exception for Bijal's service dog,
then other people will want to bring their dogs.
例子:如果我们为比贾尔的服务犬做一个例外,
那么其他人也会想带他们的狗过来.
Then everybody will bring their dog,
and before you know it,
our restaurant will be overrun with dogs,
their slobber,
their hair,
and all the noise they make,
and nobody will want to eat here anymore.
然后每个人都会带他们的狗,
最后我们餐馆会被狗,
狗的口水,
狗的毛发以及它们发出的噪音淹没,
没人会再想在这里用餐了.
6 Hasty generalization
草率概括
A hasty generalization is a statement made after considering just one or a few examples rather than relying on more extensive research to back up the claim.
草率概括是在仅考虑一个或少数几个例子后做出的陈述,
而不是依靠更广泛的研究来支持这一主张.
It's important to keep in mind that what constitutes sufficient research depends on the issue at hand and the statement being made about it.
需要注意的是,
什么构成充分的研究取决于问题的性质和所做的陈述.
Example:I felt nauseated both times I ate pizza from Georgio's,
so I must be allergic to something in pizza.
例子:我每次吃乔治奥的比萨时都会感到恶心,
所以我一定对比萨中的某种成分过敏.
7 Appeal to authority
诉诸权威
In an appeal to authority,
the arguer claims an authority figure's expertise to support a claim despite this expertise being irrelevant or overstated.
诉诸权威是指论者声称依靠一个权威人物的专业知识来支持一个主张,
即使这个专业知识不相关或被夸大了.
Example:If you want to be healthy,
you need to stop drinking coffee.
例子:如果你想要健康, 你需要停止喝咖啡.
I read it on a fitness blog.
我在一个健身博客上读到的.
8 False dilemma
虚假困境
A false dilemma,
also known as a false dichotomy,
claims there are only two options in a given situation.
虚假困境, 也称为虚假对立, 声称在给定情况下只有两个选项.
Often,
these two options are extreme opposites of each other,
failing to acknowledge that other,
more reasonable,
options exist.
通常, 这两个选项是极端对立的,
未能承认其他更合理的选项的存在.
Example:If you don't support my decision,
you were never really my friend.
例子:如果你不支持我的决定, 那你从未真正是我的朋友.
9 Bandwagon fallacy
从众谬误
With the bandwagon fallacy,
the arguer claims that a certain action is the right thing to do because it's popular.
从众谬误是指论者声称某一特定行为是正确的,
因为它很受欢迎.
Example:Of course it's fine to wait until the last minute to write your paper.
例子:当然, 最后一刻才写论文是没问题的.
Everybody does it!
每个人都这么做!
10 Appeal to ignorance
诉诸无知
An appeal to ignorance is a claim that something must be true because it hasn't been proven false.
诉诸无知是指声称某事必须是真的, 因为它没有被证明是假的.
It can also be a claim that something must be false because it hasn't been proven true.
也可以是声称某事必须是假的,
因为它没有被证明是真的.
This is also known as the burden of proof fallacy.
这也被称为证明负担谬误.
Example:There must be fairies living in our attic because nobody's ever proven that there aren't fairies living in our attic.
例子:我们阁楼里一定有妖精, 因为没有人证明我们阁楼里没有妖精.
11 Circular argument
循环论证
A circular argument is one that uses the same statement as both the premise and the conclusion.
循环论证是指使用相同的陈述作为前提和结论.
No new information or justification is introduced.
没有引入新的信息或理由.
Example:Peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow because I think peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow.
例子:辣椒是最容易种植的蔬菜, 因为我认为辣椒是最容易种植的蔬菜.
12 Sunk cost fallacy
沉没成本谬误
With the sunk cost fallacy,
the arguer justifies their decision to continue a specific course of action by the amount of time or money they've already spent on it.
沉没成本谬误是指论者通过已经花费的时间或金钱来为继续某一特定行动的决定辩护.
Example:I'm not enjoying this book,
but I bought it,
so I have to finish reading it.
例子:我不喜欢这本书, 但我买了它, 所以我必须把它读完.
13 Appeal to pity
诉诸怜悯
An appeal to pity attempts to sway a reader's or listener's opinion by provoking them emotionally.
诉诸怜悯试图通过引发读者或听众的情感来左右他们的意见.
Example:I know I should have been on time for the interview,
but I woke up late and felt really bad about it,
then the stress of being late made it hard to concentrate on driving here.
例子:我知道我应该准时参加面试, 但我睡晚了, 对此感到非常内疚,
然后迟到的压力让我难以集中精力开车来这里.
14 Causal fallacy
因果谬误
A causal fallacy is one that implies a relationship between two things where one can't actually be proven.
因果谬误是指暗示两者之间存在某种关系,
而这种关系实际上无法证明.
Example:When ice cream sales are up,
so are shark attacks.
例子:当冰淇淋销量上涨时, 鲨鱼攻击也会增加.
Therefore,
buying ice cream increases your risk of being bitten by a shark.
因此, 购买冰淇淋会增加你被鲨鱼咬伤的风险.
15 Appeal to hypocrisy
诉诸虚伪
An appeal to hypocrisy,
also known as a tu quoque fallacy,
is a rebuttal that responds to one claim with reactive criticism rather than with a response to the claim itself.
诉诸虚伪, 也称为tu quoque谬误,
是一种用反应性批评来回应一个主张,
而不是直接回应主张本身的反驳.
Example:You don't have enough experience to be the new leader.
例子:你没有足够的经验成为新的领导者.
Neither do you!"
你也没有!"
