Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.
谬误是推理中的常见错误,
它会削弱你论点的逻辑性.
Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points,
and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim.
谬误可能是非法的论点或无关的观点,
通常因为缺乏支持其主张的证据而被识别出来.
Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of others.
在你自己的论点中避免这些常见的谬误,
并在别人的论点中注意它们.
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Slippery Slope:This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens,
then eventually through a series of small steps,
through B, C, ..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z.
滑坡谬误:这是基于这样的前提得出的结论:如果A发生了,
那么最终通过一系列的小步骤,
通过B, C, ……, X, Y, Z也会发生, 基本上把A和Z等同起来.
So, if we don't want Z to occur,
A must not be allowed to occur either.
所以,
如果我们不希望Z发生,
那么A也不应该发生.
Example:
例子:
If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will ban all cars,
so we should not ban Hummers.
如果我们禁止悍马车因为它们对环境有害,
最终政府会禁止所有的汽车,
所以我们不应该禁止悍马车.
In this example,
the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars,
which is not the same thing.
在这个例子中,
作者把禁止悍马车等同于禁止所有的汽车,
这是不一样的.
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Hasty Generalization:This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence.
以偏概全:这是基于不充分或有偏见的证据得出的结论.
In other words,
you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts.
换句话说,
你在拥有所有相关事实之前就匆忙得出结论.
Example:
例子:
Even though it's only the first day,
I can tell this is going to be a boring course.
尽管只是第一天, 我就知道这将是一个无聊的课程.
In this example,
the author is basing his evaluation of the entire course on only the first day,
which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses.
在这个例子中,
作者仅仅基于第一天就对整个课程进行评价,
而第一天通常是无聊且充满杂务的.
To make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author must attend not one but several classes,
and possibly even examine the textbook,
talk to the professor,
or talk to others who have previously finished the course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on.
为了做出公正合理的评价,
作者必须不仅参加一堂课而是多堂课,
甚至可能需要查阅教材,
与教授交谈,
或者与以前上过这门课的人交谈,
以获得足够的证据来得出结论.
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Post hoc ergo propter hoc:This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have caused 'A.'
后此谬误:这是假设A在"B"之后发生,
那么"B"一定导致了"A"的结论.
Example:
例子:
I drank bottled water and now I am sick,
so the water must have made me sick.
我喝了瓶装水, 现在我病了, 所以一定是水让我病了.
In this example,
the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first event must have caused the second.
在这个例子中,
作者假设如果一个事件按时间顺序发生在另一个事件之后,
第一个事件一定导致了第二个事件.
But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the night before,
a flu bug that had been working on the body for days,
or a chemical spill across campus.
但病因可能是前一天晚上的墨西哥卷饼,
一种潜伏几天的流感病毒,
或者校园里的化学品泄漏.
There is no reason,
without more evidence,
to assume the water caused the person to be sick.
没有更多的证据,
就没有理由假设水导致了生病.
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Genetic Fallacy:This conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person,
idea, institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth.
遗传谬误:这个结论基于一个论点,
即某个人, 观点, 机构或理论的起源决定了其性质, 特征或价值.
Example:
例子:
The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army.
大众甲壳虫是一辆邪恶的车,
因为它最初是希特勒的军队设计的.
In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who built the car.
在这个例子中,
作者将汽车的特性与制造这辆车的人的特性等同起来.
However, the two are not inherently related.
然而, 这两者并没有内在的关系.
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Begging the Claim:The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim.
乞求论点:作者应该证明的结论在论点中已经被验证.
Example:
例子:
Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.
肮脏且污染的煤应该被禁止.
Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical.
论证煤污染地球, 因此应该被禁止是合乎逻辑的.
But the very conclusion that should be proved,
that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its use,
is already assumed in the claim by referring to it as filthy and polluting.
但是应该被证明的结论,
即煤造成了足够的污染以至于应该被禁止,
在论点中已经通过称其为肮脏且污染的而被假定了.
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Circular Argument:This restates the argument rather than actually proving it.
循环论证:这实际上是重新陈述论点而不是实际证明它.
Example:
例子:
George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.
乔治·布什是一个优秀的沟通者, 因为他说话有效.
In this example,
the conclusion that Bush is a good communicator and the evidence used to prove it he speaks effectively are basically the same idea.
在这个例子中,
布什是一个优秀的沟通者的结论和用来证明它的证据"他说话有效"基本上是同一个意思.
Specific evidence such as using everyday language,
breaking down complex problems,
or illustrating his points with humorous stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence.
需要具体的证据,
例如使用日常语言,
分解复杂问题,
或用幽默的故事来说明他的观点,
才能证明句子的任何一半.
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Either/or:This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices.
非此即彼:这是一个通过将论点简化为只有两个方面或选择而得出的结论.
Example:
例子:
We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.
我们要么停止使用汽车,
要么毁灭地球.
In this example,
the two choices are presented as the only options,
yet the author ignores a range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology,
car-sharing systems for necessities and emergencies,
or better community planning to discourage daily driving.
在这个例子中,
两个选择被作为唯一的选项呈现,
然而作者忽略了中间的一系列选择,
如开发更清洁的技术,
针对必要情况和紧急情况的拼车系统,
或更好的社区规划以减少日常驾驶.
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Ad hominem:This is an attack on the character of a person rather than his or her opinions or arguments.
人身攻击:这是对人的品格而不是其观点或论点的攻击.
Example:
例子:
Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty,
lazy hippies.
绿色和平组织的策略无效,
因为他们都是肮脏, 懒惰的嬉皮士.
In this example,
the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested,
much less evaluate those strategies on their merits.
在这个例子中,
作者甚至没有提到绿色和平组织提出的具体策略,
更不用说评估这些策略的优劣了.
Instead,
the author attacks the characters of the individuals in the group.
相反,
作者攻击了该组织成员的品格.
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Ad populum/Bandwagon Appeal:This is an appeal that presents what most people,
or a group of people think,
in order to persuade one to think the same way.
诉诸多数/从众效应:这是一种通过展示大多数人或一群人的想法来劝说他人也这样想的诉求.
Getting on the bandwagon is one such instance of an ad populum appeal.
从众效应就是诉诸多数的一种表现.
Example:
例子:
If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want.
如果你是真正的美国人,
你就会支持人们选择任何他们想要的车辆的权利.
In this example,
the author equates being a true American,
a concept that people want to be associated with,
particularly in a time of war,
with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want even though there is no inherent connection between the two.
在这个例子中,
作者将成为真正的美国人这一人们想要被关联的概念,
特别是在战争时期,
与允许人们购买任何他们想要的车辆等同起来,
尽管这两者之间没有内在联系.
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Red Herring:This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues,
often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them.
红鲱鱼:这是一种转移策略,
避开关键问题, 通常通过避开反对的论点而不是解决它们.
Example:
例子:
The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe,
but what will fishers do to support their families?
海鲜中的汞含量可能不安全,
但渔民要如何养家糊口呢?
In this example,
the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks instead about an economic issue,
the livelihood of those catching fish.
在这个例子中,
作者将讨论从食物安全转移到经济问题,
即捕捞鱼类者的生计问题.
While one issue may affect the other it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible economic consequences to a few individuals.
尽管一个问题可能会影响另一个问题,
但这并不意味着我们应该因为一些人的经济后果而忽视潜在的安全问题.
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Straw Man:This move oversimplifies an opponent's viewpoint and then attacks that hollow argument.
稻草人谬误:这种做法将对手的观点简化, 然后攻击那个空洞的论点.
Example:
例子:
People who don't support the proposed state minimum wage increase hate the poor.
不支持提议的州最低工资上涨的人就是恨穷人.
In this example,
the author attributes the worst possible motive to an opponent's position.
在这个例子中,
作者将对手的立场归结为最坏的动机.
In reality,
however,
the opposition probably has more complex and sympathetic arguments to support their point.
然而,
实际上,
对手可能有更复杂和更具同情心的论据来支持他们的观点.
By not addressing those arguments,
the author is not treating the opposition with respect or refuting their position.
通过不解决这些论据,
作者既不尊重对手,
也没有驳倒他们的立场.
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Moral Equivalence:This fallacy compares minor misdeeds with major atrocities,
suggesting that both are equally immoral.
道德等同:这种谬误将轻微的不当行为与重大暴行相比较,
暗示两者同样不道德.
Example:
例子:
That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler.
那个给我开罚单的停车管理员和希特勒一样坏.
In this example,
the author is comparing the relatively harmless actions of a person doing their job with the horrific actions of Hitler.
在这个例子中,
作者将一个人做工作的相对无害的行为与希特勒的恐怖行为进行比较.
This comparison is unfair and inaccurate.
这种比较是不公平和不准确的.
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