CHAPTER VI SENSATION
第六章 感觉
We can best understand the problems of sensation and perception if we first think of the existence of two great worlds—the world of physical nature without and the world of mind within. On the one hand is our material environment, the things we see and hear and touch and taste and handle; and on the other hand our consciousness, the means by which we come to know this outer world and adjust ourselves to it. These two worlds seem in a sense to belong to and require each other. For what would be the meaning or use of the physical world with no mind to know or use it; and what would be the use of a mind with nothing to be known or thought about?
我们如果首先想到存在着两个伟大的世界——物质的外在自然世界和内心精神世界，就能更好地理解感觉和知觉的问题。一方面，我们周围的物质环境，即我们看到、听到、触摸到、品尝到和处理的事物；另一方面是我们的意识，通过它我们了解外部世界并使自己适应这个世界。这两个世界在某种程度上似乎属于彼此，相互需要。没有心智去认识或使用的物质世界有什么意义或用途呢？一个没有任何事情可被认知或思考的心智又有什么用处呢？
1. HOW WE COME TO KNOW THE EXTERNAL WORLD
1.我们如何认识外部世界
There is a marvel about our coming to know the external world which we shall never be able fully to understand. We have come by this knowledge so gradually and unconsciously that it now appears to us as commonplace, and we take for granted many things that it would puzzle us to explain.
我们如何逐渐了解外部世界的过程充满了不可思议，这是我们永远无法彻底理解的。这一认识过程是如此缓慢而无意识地进行的，以至于现在对我们来说显得平淡无奇，许多事情我们认为理所当然，但如果要解释它们却会让我们感到困惑。
Knowledge through the Senses.—For example, we say, "Of course I see yonder green tree: it is about ten rods distant." But why "of course"? Why should objects at a distance from us and with no evident connection85 between us and them be known to us at all merely by turning our eyes in their direction when there is light? Why not rather say with the blind son of Professor Puiseaux of Paris, who, when asked if he would like to be restored to sight, answered: "If it were not for curiosity I would rather have long arms. It seems to me that my hands would teach me better what is passing in the moon than your eyes or telescopes."
通过感官获得的知识——例如，我们常说：“我当然能看到那边的绿树：它大约十杆远。”但为什么“当然”呢？为什么距离我们一定距离、与我们之间没有明显联系的物体，仅凭我们在有光的情况下将目光转向它们的方向，就能被我们所知晓呢？为什么我们不与巴黎普瑟奥教授的盲人儿子持同样的观点，当他被问及是否愿意恢复视力时，他答道：“如果不是出于好奇，我宁愿拥有长臂。在我看来，我的手能比你们的眼睛或望远镜更好地告诉我月亮上发生了什么。”
We listen and then say, "Yes, that is a certain bell ringing in the neighboring village," as if this were the most simple thing in the world. But why should one piece of metal striking against another a mile or two away make us aware that there is a bell there at all, let alone that it is a certain bell whose tone we recognize? Or we pass our fingers over a piece of cloth and decide, "That is silk." But why, merely by placing our skin in contact with a bit of material, should we be able to know its quality, much less that it is cloth and that its threads were originally spun by an insect? Or we take a sip of liquid and say, "This milk is sour." But why should we be able by taking the liquid into the mouth and bringing it into contact with the mucous membrane to tell that it is milk, and that it possesses the quality which we callsour? Or, once more, we get a whiff of air through the open window in the springtime and say, "There is a lilac bush in bloom on the lawn." Yet why, from inhaling air containing particles of lilac, should we be able to know that there is anything outside, much less that it is a flower and of a particular variety which we call lilac? Or, finally, we hold a heated flatiron up near the cheek and say, "This is too hot! it will burn the cloth." But why by holding this object a foot away from the face do we know that it is there, let alone knowing its temperature?86
我们聆听然后说，“是的，那是邻近村庄里某个钟声响起，”好像这是世上最简单的事。但为什么一英里或两英里外一块金属撞击另一块金属会让我们意识到那里有一个钟，更不用说我们还能识别出那是一个特定音调的钟声？或者我们用手指触摸一块布料并判断，“这是丝绸。”但为什么仅仅通过将我们的皮肤与一点材料接触，我们就能知道它的质地，更不用说它是不是布料以及它的纤维原本是由昆虫纺出的？或者我们尝一小口液体然后说，“这牛奶酸了。”但我们怎么可能通过将液体放入口中并与粘膜接触就能判断出它是牛奶，且具有我们称之为酸的品质？又或者，在春天我们通过开着的窗户闻到一股空气的味道然后说，“草坪上有一棵正在开花的丁香树。”然而，为什么仅凭吸入含有丁香粒子的空气，我们就能知道外面有东西，更不用说它是一朵花且是我们所称呼的特定品种——丁香？最后，我们将一个加热的熨斗靠近脸颊然后说，“这太热了！它会烧坏布料。”但为什么通过将这个物体举在离脸一英尺远的地方，我们就知道它在那里，更不用说了解它的温度了？
The Unity of Sensory Experience.—Further, our senses come through experience to have the power of fusing, or combining their knowledge, so to speak, by which each expresses its knowledge in terms of the others. Thus we take a glance out of the window and say that the day looks cold, although we well know that we cannot see cold. Or we say that the melon sounds green, or the bell sounds cracked, although a crack or greenness cannot be heard. Or we say that the box feels empty, although emptiness cannot be felt. We have come to associate cold, originally experienced with days which look like the one we now see, with this particular appearance, and so we say we see the cold; sounds like the one coming from the bell we have come to associate with cracked bells, and that coming from the melon with green melons, until we say unhesitatingly that the bell sounds cracked and the melon sounds green. And so with the various senses. Each gleans from the world its own particular bit of knowledge, but all are finally in a partnership and what is each one's knowledge belongs to every other one in so far as the other can use it.
感官体验的统一性——进一步来说，我们的感官通过经验获得了一种融合或结合它们各自知识的能力，可以说，每个感官都用其他感官的术语来表达自己的知识。因此，我们瞥一眼窗外然后说今天看起来冷，尽管我们很清楚冷是看不见的。或者我们说西瓜听起来是生的，或钟声听起来有裂痕，尽管生熟和裂痕是无法听到的。或者我们说盒子摸起来是空的，尽管空是无法感觉到的。我们已经将冷与那些看起来像我们现在看到的这一天的日子联系起来，所以我们说我们看到冷；来自钟声的声音我们已经与破裂的钟联系起来，而来自西瓜的声音与生的西瓜相联系，直到我们毫不犹豫地说钟声听起来有裂痕，西瓜听起来是生的。各种感官也是如此。每个感官从世界中收集它自己特有的一点知识，但最终所有感官都处于一种合作关系中，每个感官的知识都属于其他每一个感官，只要其他感官能使用它。
The Sensory Processes to Be Explained.—The explanation of the ultimate nature of knowledge, and how we reach it through contact with our material environment, we will leave to the philosophers. And battles enough they have over the question, and still others they will have before the matter is settled. The easier and more important problem for us is to describe the processes by which the mind comes to know its environment, and to see how it uses this knowledge in thinking. This much we shall be able to do, for it is often possible to describe a process and discover its laws even when we cannot fully explain its nature and origin. We know87 the process of digestion and assimilation, and the laws which govern them, although we do not understand the ultimate nature and origin of life which makes these possible.
感官过程的解释——关于知识的最终本质以及我们如何通过与物质环境的接触来获得知识的解释，我们将留给哲学家们。他们在这个问题上已经争论不休，而且在问题得到解决之前还会有更多的争论。对我们来说，更简单也更重要的问题是描述心智如何认识其环境的过程，并了解它是如何在思考中使用这些知识的。这一点我们能够做到，因为即使我们不能完全解释一个过程的本质和起源，我们也常常能够描述这个过程并发现其规律。我们知道消化和吸收的过程及其规律，尽管我们不理解使这些成为可能的生命的最终本质和起源。
The Qualities of Objects Exist in the Mind.—Yet even in the relatively simple description which we have proposed many puzzles confront us, and one of them appears at the very outset. This is that the qualities which we usually ascribe to objects really exist in our own minds and not in the objects at all. Take, for instance, the common qualities of light and color. The physicist tells us that what we see as light is occasioned by an incredibly rapid beating of ether waves on the retina of the eye. All space is filled with this ether; and when it is light—that is, when some object like the sun or other light-giving body is present—the ether is set in motion by the vibrating molecules of the body which is the source of light, its waves strike the retina, a current is produced and carried to the brain, and we see light. This means, then, that space, the medium in which we see objects, is not filled with light (the sensation), but with very rapid waves of ether, and that the light which we see really occurs in our own minds as the mental response to the physical stimulus of ether waves. Likewise with color.Color is produced by ether waves of different lengths and degrees of rapidity.
物体的品质存在于心智中——即使在我们提出的相对简单的描述中，我们也面临许多难题，其中一个难题从一开始就出现了。这就是我们通常归因于物体的品质实际上存在于我们自己的心灵中，而不是物体本身。以常见的光和颜色品质为例。物理学家告诉我们，我们所见到的光是由眼睛视网膜上以难以置信的速度振动的以太波引起的。所有空间都充满了这种以太；当它是光——也就是说，当像太阳或其他发光体这样的物体存在时——以太被作为光源的物体的振动分子激发，其波动撞击视网膜，产生电流并传递到大脑，我们就看到了光。这意味着，我们看到物体的空间介质并非充满了光（感觉），而是充满了非常快速的以太波，我们看到的光实际上是我们心智对以太波物理刺激的心理反应。颜色也是如此。颜色是由不同长度和速度的以太波产生的。
Thus ether waves at the rate of 450 billions a second give us the sensation of red; of 472 billions a second, orange; of 526 billions a second, yellow; of 589 billions a second, green; of 640 billions a second, blue; of 722 billions a second, indigo; of 790 billions a second, violet. What exists outside of us, then, is these ether waves of different rates, and not the colors (as sensations)88 themselves. The beautiful yellow and crimson of a sunset, the variegated colors of a landscape, the delicate pink in the cheek of a child, the blush of a rose, the shimmering green of the lake—these reside not in the objects themselves, but in the consciousness of the one who sees them. The objects possess but the quality of reflecting back to the eye ether waves of the particular rate corresponding to the color which we ascribe to them. Thus "red" objects, and no others, reflect back ether waves of a rate of 450 billions a second: "white" objects reflect all rates; "black" objects reflect none.
因此，每秒4500亿次的以太波给我们红色的感官体验；每秒4720亿次的以太波产生橙色；每秒5260亿次的以太波产生黄色；每秒5890亿次的以太波产生绿色；每秒6400亿次的以太波产生蓝色；每秒7220亿次的以太波产生靛蓝；每秒7900亿次的以太波产生紫色。那么，存在于我们外部的是这些不同速率的以太波，而不是颜色（作为感觉）本身。日落时分美丽的黄色和深红色、风景中多变的颜色、孩子脸颊上细腻的粉红色、玫瑰的红润、湖面闪烁的绿色——这些并不存在于物体本身，而是存在于观看它们的人的意译中。物体只具有将特定速率的以太波反射回眼睛的性质，这个速率对应于我们归因于它们的颜色。因此，“红色”物体，而非其他颜色的物体，会反射回每秒4500亿次的以太波：“白色”物体反射所有速率的以太波；“黑色”物体不反射任何以太波。
The case is no different with regard to sound. When we speak of a sound coming from a bell, what we really mean is that the vibrations of the bell have set up waves in the air between it and our ear, which have produced corresponding vibrations in the ear; that a nerve current was thereby produced; and that a sound was heard. But the sound (i.e., sensation) is a mental thing, and exists only in our own consciousness. What passed between the sounding object and ourselves was waves in the intervening air, ready to be translated through the machinery of nerves and brain into the beautiful tones and melodies and harmonies of the mind. And so with all other sensations.
声音的情况也是如此。当我们说一个声音来自钟声时，我们真正的意思是，钟声的振动在它和我们的耳朵之间的空气中产生了波动，这些波动在耳朵中产生了相应的振动；由此产生了神经电流；于是我们听到了声音。但声音（即感觉）是一种心理现象，只存在于我们自己的意识中。在发声物体和我们之间传递的是空气波，它们准备通过神经和大脑的机制转化为心智中美妙的音调、旋律和和声。其他所有感觉亦是如此。
The Three Sets of Factors.—What exists outside of us therefore is a stimulus, some form of physical energy, of a kind suitable to excite to activity a certain end-organ of taste, or touch, or smell, or sight, or hearing; what exists within us is the nervous machinery capable of converting this stimulus into a nerve current which shall produce an activity in the cortex of the brain; what results is the mental object which we call a sensation of taste, smell, touch, sight, or hearing.89
三组因素——因此，存在于我们外部的是一种刺激，某种形式的物理能量，它适合激发某种感官（如味觉、触觉、嗅觉、视觉或听觉）的末端器官；存在于我们内部的是能够将这种刺激转化为神经电流的神经机制，该电流将在大脑皮层产生活动；其结果是我们称之为味觉、嗅觉、触觉、视觉或听觉感觉的心理对象。
2. THE NATURE OF SENSATION
2.感觉的本质
Sensation Gives Us Our World of Qualities.—In actual experience sensations are never known apart from the objects to which they belong. This is to say that when we see yellow or red it is always in connection with some surface, or object; when we taste sour, this quality belongs to some substance, and so on with all the senses. Yet by sensation we mean only the simple qualities of objects known in consciousness as the result of appropriate stimuli applied to end-organs. We shall later see how by perception these qualities fuse or combine to form objects, but in the present chapter we shall be concerned with the qualities only. Sensations are, then, the simplest and most elementary knowledge we may get from the physical world,—the red, the blue, the bitter, the cold, the fragrant, and whatever other qualities may belong to the external world. We shall not for the present be concerned with the objects or sources from which the qualities may come.
感觉为我们提供了品质的世界——在实际经验中，感觉从未与它们所属的对象分离。也就是说，当我们看到黄色或红色时，它们总是与某个表面或物体相关联；当我们尝到酸味时，这种品质属于某种物质，所有感官都是如此。然而，通过感觉，我们仅仅指的是作为对末端器官施加适当刺激的结果而在意识中已知的物体的简单品质。我们稍后将看到，通过感知这些品质如何融合或组合形成物体，但在本章中我们只关注品质。因此，感觉是我们从物理世界可能获得的最简单、最基本的知识——红色、蓝色、苦味、寒冷、芳香以及任何其他可能属于外部世界的品质。目前我们不会关注这些品质可能来自的对象或来源。
To quote James on the meaning of sensation: "All we can say on this point is thatwhat we mean by sensations are first things in the way of consciousness. They are the immediate results upon consciousness of nerve currents as they enter the brain, and before they have awakened any suggestions or associations with past experience. But it is obvious that such immediate sensations can be realized only in the earliest days of life."
引用詹姆斯关于感觉的意义：“在这一点上，我们所能说的就是，我们所说的感觉是意识方面的第一事物。它们是神经电流进入大脑时对意识的直接结果，在此之前它们还没有唤醒任何与过去经验相关的暗示或联想。但很明显，这样的直接感觉只能在生命的最初几天实现。”
The Attributes of Sensation.—Sensations differ from each other in at least four respects; namely, quality, intensity, extensity, and duration.
感觉的属性——感觉至少在四个方面有所不同；即，品质、强度、广度和持续时间。
It is a difference inquality that makes us say, "This paper is red, and that, blue; this liquid is sweet, and that, sour." Differences in quality are therefore fundamental90 differences in kind. Besides the quality-differences that exist within the same general field, as of taste or vision, it is evident that there is a still more fundamental difference existing between the various fields. One can, for example, compare red with blue or sweet with sour, and tell which quality he prefers. But let him try to compare red with sweet, or blue with sour, and the quality-difference is so profound that there seems to be no basis for comparison.
正是质的不同，我们才会说“这张纸是红色的，那张纸是蓝色的；这种液体是甜的，那种液体是酸的。”因此，质的差异是种类的根本差异。除了同一领域内存在的质的差异，如味觉或视觉之外，各种领域之间显然还存在着更加根本的差异。例如，一个人可以比较红色和蓝色或者甜味和酸味，并说出他更喜欢哪种特质。但是，让他试着将红色与甜味进行比较，或将蓝色与酸味比较，质的差异如此之深，以至于似乎没有比较的基础。
Differences inintensity of sensation are familiar to every person who prefers two lumps of sugar rather than one lump in his coffee; the sweet is of the same quality in either case, but differs in intensity. In every field of sensation, the intensity may proceed from the smallest amount to the greatest amount discernible. In general, the intensity of the sensation depends on the intensity of the stimulus, though the condition of the sense-organ as regards fatigue or adaptation to the stimulus has its effect. It is obvious that a stimulus may be too weak to produce any sensation; as, for example, a few grains of sugar in a cup of coffee or a few drops of lemon in a quart of water could not be detected. It is also true that the intensity of the stimulus may be so great that an increase in intensity produces no effect on the sensation; as, for example, the addition of sugar to a solution of saccharine would not noticeably increase its sweetness. The lowest and highest intensity points of sensation are called the lower and upper limen, or threshold, respectively.
感觉强度的差异对于每个人来说都是熟悉的，比如有些人喜欢在咖啡里加两块糖而不是一块；甜味的质在任何情况下都是相同的，但强度不同。在每一个感觉领域，强度可以从最小的量增加到可辨识的最大量。通常情况下，感觉的强度取决于刺激的强度，尽管感觉器官的状态，如疲劳或对刺激的适应，也会产生一定影响。显然，一个刺激可能太弱而无法产生任何感觉；例如，一杯咖啡中的几粒糖或一夸脱水中的几滴柠檬汁是无法被察觉的。同样真实的是，刺激的强度可能如此之大，以至于增加强度对感觉没有影响；例如，在含有糖精的溶液中加糖不会显著增加其甜味。感觉的最低和最高强度点分别被称为下限和上限阈值（或临界值）。
Byextensity is meant the space-differences of sensations. The touch of the point of a toothpick on the skin has a different space quality from the touch of the flat end of a pencil. Low tones seem to have more volume than high tones. Some pains feel sharp and91 others dull and diffuse. The warmth felt from spreading the palms of the hands out to the fire has a "bigness" not felt from heating one solitary finger. The extensity of a sensation depends on the number of nerve endings stimulated.
“广延性”指的是感觉的空间差异。牙签尖端触碰皮肤的感觉与铅笔平端触碰的感觉在空间质感上有所不同。低音似乎比高音具有更多的体积感。有些疼痛感觉尖锐，而另一些则感觉迟钝且扩散。将手掌展开向着火苗感受到的温暖有一种“广阔”感，这种感觉是加热单个手指所感受不到的。感觉的广延性取决于被刺激的神经末梢数量。
Theduration of a sensation refers to the time it lasts. This must not be confused with the duration of the stimulus, which may be either longer or shorter than the duration of the sensation. Every sensation must exist for some space of time, long or short, or it would have no part in consciousness.
感觉的持续时间指的是它持续的时间长短。这一点不能与刺激的持续时间相混淆，刺激的持续时间可能比感觉的持续时间长，也可能短。每一种感觉都必须存在于一段时间内，无论这段时间是长是短，否则它就不会出现在意识中。
3. SENSORY QUALITIES AND THEIR END-ORGANS
3. 感觉的质量及其感受器
All are familiar with the "five senses" of our elementary physiologies, sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. A more complete study of sensation reveals nearly three times this number, however. This is to say that the body is equipped with more than a dozen different kinds of end-organs, each prepared to receive its own particular type of stimulus. It must also be understood that some of the end-organs yield more than one sense. The eye, for example, gives not only visual but muscular sensations; the ear not only auditory, but tactual; the tongue not only gustatory, but tactual and cold and warmth sensations.
我们都熟悉小学生理学中的“五感”：视觉、听觉、味觉、嗅觉和触觉。然而，对感觉的更全面研究揭示了近三倍于此的感觉种类。也就是说，人体配备了十几种不同类型的感受器，每一种都准备好接收其特定类型的刺激。还必须理解的是，一些感受器会产生不止一种感觉。例如，眼睛不仅提供视觉还有肌肉感觉；耳朵不仅提供听觉，还有触觉；舌头不仅提供味觉，还有触觉以及冷和温暖的感觉。
Sight.—Vision is a distance sense; we can see afar off. The stimulus is chemical in its action; this means that the ether waves, on striking the retina, cause a chemical change which sets up the nerve current responsible for the sensation.
视觉——视力是一种距离感；我们可以看见远处的物体。刺激在作用上是化学的；这意味着以太波在撞击视网膜时会引起化学变化，从而产生负责感觉的神经电流。
The eye, whose general structure is sufficiently described in all standard physiologies, consists of a visual apparatus designed to bring the images of objects to a92 clear focus on the retina at the fovea, or area of clearest vision, near the point of entrance of the optic nerve.
眼睛的总体结构在所有标准生理学中都有充分的描述，它包括一个视觉装置，旨在将物体的图像清晰地聚焦到视网膜上的中央凹或清晰视觉区域，靠近视神经进入点附近。
The sensation of sight coming from this retinal image unaided by other sensations gives us but two qualities,light and color. The eye can distinguish many different grades of light from purest white on through the various grays to densest black. The range is greater still in color. We speak of the seven colors of the spectrum, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. But this is not a very serviceable classification, since the average eye can distinguish about 35,000 color effects. It is also somewhat bewildering to find that all these colors seem to be produced from the four fundamental hues, red, green, yellow, and blue, plus the various tints. These four, combined in varying proportions and with different degrees of light (i.e., different shades of gray), yield all the color effects known to the human eye. Herschel estimates that the workers on the mosaics at Rome must have distinguished 30,000 different color tones. The hue of a color refers to its fundamental quality, as red or yellow; the chroma, to its saturation, or the strength of the color; and the tint, to the amount of brightness (i.e., white) it contains.
来自视网膜图像的视觉感觉，在没有其他感觉的帮助下，只给我们两种品质：光和颜色。眼睛能区分许多不同等级的光，从最纯净的白色到各种灰色，再到最浓重的黑色。颜色的范围更大。我们谈论光谱的七种颜色，紫罗兰色、靛蓝色、蓝色、绿色、黄色、橙色和红色。但这不是一个实用的分类，因为平均眼睛可以区分大约35000种颜色效果。同样令人困惑的是，所有这些颜色似乎都是从四种基本色调，红色、绿色、黄色和蓝色，加上各种色调产生的。这四种颜色以不同的比例和不同程度的光（即不同的灰度）组合在一起，产生人类眼睛所知的所有颜色效果。赫歇尔估计，罗马马赛克上的工人必须区分出30000种不同的色调。颜色的色调指的是它的基本品质，如红色或黄色；色度指的是它的饱和度，或颜色的强度；而色调则指的是它所包含的亮度（即白色）的数量。
Hearing.—Hearing is also a distance sense. The action of its stimulus is mechanical, which is to say that the vibrations produced in the air by the sounding body are finally transmitted by the mechanism of the middle ear to the inner ear. Here the impulse is conveyed through the liquid of the internal ear to the nerve endings as so many tiny blows, which produce the nerve current carried to the brain by the auditory nerve.
听觉——听觉也是一种距离感。其刺激的作用是机械的，也就是说，发声体在空气中产生的振动最终通过中耳的机制传递到内耳。在这里，冲动通过内耳的液体以许多微小的撞击形式传递给神经末梢，产生由听神经携带到大脑的神经电流。
The sensation of hearing, like that of sight, gives us two qualities: namely,tones with their accompanying pitch and timbre, and noises. Tones, or musical sounds,93 are produced by isochronous or equal-timed vibrations; thus C of the first octave is produced by 256 vibrations a second, and if this tone is prolonged the vibration rate will continue uniformly the same. Noises, on the other hand, are produced by vibrations which have no uniformity of vibration rate. The ear's sensibility to pitch extends over about seven octaves. The seven-octave piano goes down to 27-1/2 vibrations and reaches up to 3,500 vibrations. Notes of nearly 50,000 vibrations can be heard by an average ear, however, though these are too painfully shrill to be musical. Taking into account this upper limit, the range of the ear is about eleven octaves. The ear, having given us loudness of tones, which depends on the amplitude of the vibrations, pitch, which depends on the rapidity of the vibrations, and timbre, or quality, which depends on the complexity of the vibrations, has no further qualities of sound to reveal.
听觉和视觉一样，给我们两种品质：即音调和噪音。音调或乐音是由等时振动产生的；因此第一八度C由每秒256次振动产生，如果这个音调延长，振动率将保持均匀不变。另一方面，噪音是由没有振动率的一致性的振动产生的。耳朵对音高的敏感度大约覆盖七个八度。七八度钢琴向下到27-1/2振动，向上到3,500振动。然而，平均耳朵可以听到近50,000振动的音符，尽管这些音符太刺耳而不能成为音乐。考虑到这个上限，耳朵的范围大约是十一个八度。耳朵给了我们音量，这取决于振动的振幅，音高，这取决于振动的速度，以及音色或质量，这取决于振动的复杂性。此外，目前没有进一步的声音品质可以揭示。
Taste.—The sense of taste is located chiefly in the tongue, over the surface of which are scattered many minute taste-bulbs.These can be seen as small red specks, most plentifully distributed along the edges and at the tip of the tongue. The substance tasted must be in solution, and come in contact with the nerve endings. The action of the stimulus is chemical.
味觉——味觉主要位于舌头上，舌头表面散布着许多微小的味蕾。这些味蕾可以被视为小红点，它们在舌头的边缘和尖端分布最为丰富。被品尝的物质必须是溶液状态，并且要与神经末梢接触。刺激的作用是化学性的。
The sense of taste recognizes the four qualities ofsour, sweet, salt, and bitter. Many of the qualities which we improperly call tastes are in reality a complex of taste, smell, touch, and temperature. Smell contributes so largely to the sense of taste that many articles of food become "tasteless" when we have a catarrh, and many nauseating doses of medicine can be taken without discomfort if the nose is held. Probably none of us, if we are careful to exclude all odors by plugging94 the nostrils with cotton, can by taste distinguish between scraped apple, potato, turnip, or beet, or can tell hot milk from tea or coffee of the same temperature.
味觉可以识别出酸、甜、咸和苦这四种味道。我们不恰当地称为味道的许多特性，实际上是味觉、嗅觉、触觉和温度感觉的一种复合感觉。嗅觉对味觉的贡献很大，以至于当我们患了鼻黏膜炎时，食物就会变得“没有味道”，而如果我们捏住鼻子，许多令人作呕的药物也可以毫无不适地吞咽下去。如果我们小心地用棉花塞住鼻孔以排除所有气味，那么很可能我们中没有人能够仅凭味觉区分出刮过的苹果、马铃薯、萝卜或甜菜的味道，或者分辨出同温度的热牛奶与茶或咖啡的区别。
Smell.—In the upper part of the nasal cavity lies a small brownish patch of mucous membrane. It is here that the olfactory nerve endings are located. The substance smelled must be volatile, that is, must exist in gaseous form, and come in direct contact with the nerve endings. Chemical action results in a nerve current.
嗅觉：在鼻腔上部有一块小的棕色粘膜，嗅神经末梢就位于这里。被闻的物质必须是挥发性的，即必须以气态存在，并且直接与神经末梢接触。化学作用导致产生神经电流。
The sensations of smell have not been classified so well as those of taste, and we have no distinct names for them. Neither do we know how many olfactory qualities the sense of smell is capable of revealing. The only definite classification of smell qualities is that based on their pleasantness or the opposite. We also borrow a few terms and speak ofsweet or fragrant odors and fresh or close smells. There is some evidence when we observe animals, or even primitive men, that the human race has been evolving greater sensibility to certain odors, while at the same time there has been a loss of keenness of what we call scent.
嗅觉的感觉没有像味觉那样被很好地分类，我们也没有给它们起一些特别的名字。我们也不知道嗅觉到底能辨别多少种气味。唯一确定的对气味的分类是基于它们的令人愉快与否。我们也借用一些词汇来描述甜的或香的气味和清新或刺鼻的气味。当我们观察动物，甚至是原始人类时，有一些证据表明人类对某些气味的敏感性在进化，同时我们所说的嗅觉敏锐度却在丧失。
Various Sensations from the Skin.—The skin, besides being a protective and excretory organ, affords a lodging-place for the end-organs giving us our sense of pressure, pain, cold, warmth, tickle, and itch. Pressure seems to have for its end-organ the hair-bulbs of the skin; on hairless regions small bulbs called the corpuscles of Meissner serve this purpose. Pain is thought to be mediated by free nerve endings. Cold depends on end-organs called the bulbs of Krause; and warmth on the Ruffinian corpuscles.
皮肤的各种感觉——皮肤除了是一个保护性和排泄性器官外，还为压力、疼痛、冷、热、痒和刺痛等感觉的终端器官提供了栖息地。压力似乎以皮肤的毛囊为其终端器官；在无毛区域，被称为梅斯纳小体的小型球状结构承担这一功能。疼痛被认为是通过自由神经末梢介导的。冷感依赖于被称为克劳泽小体的终端器官；而热感则依赖于鲁菲尼小体。
Cutaneous or skin sensation may arise from eithermechanical stimulation, such as pressure, a blow, or tickling, from thermal stimulation from hot or cold objects,95 from electrical stimulation, or from the action of certain chemicals, such as acids and the like. Stimulated mechanically, the skin gives us but two sensation qualities, pressure and pain. Many of the qualities which we commonly ascribe to the skin sensations are really a complex of cutaneous and muscular sensations. Contact is light pressure. Hardness and softness depend on the intensity of the pressure. Roughness and smoothness arise from interrupted and continuous pressure, respectively, and require movement over the rough or smooth surface. Touch depends on pressure accompanied by the muscular sensations involved in the movements connected with the act. Pain is clearly a different sensation from pressure; but any of the cutaneous or muscular sensations may, by excessive stimulation, be made to pass over into pain. All parts of the skin are sensitive to pressure and pain; but certain parts, like the finger tips, and the tip of the tongue, are more highly sensitive than others. The skin varies also in its sensitivity to heat and cold. If we take a hot or a very cold pencil point and pass it rather lightly and slowly over the skin, it is easy to discover certain spots from which a sensation of warmth or of cold flashes out. In this way it is possible to locate the end-organs of temperature very accurately.
皮肤或触觉可能源于机械刺激，如压力、打击或瘙痒，也可能来自热刺激，如热或冷物体，95来自电刺激，或来自某些化学物质的作用，如酸等。通过机械刺激，皮肤只给我们两种感觉品质：压力和疼痛。我们通常归因于皮肤感觉的许多品质实际上是皮肤和肌肉感觉的复合体。接触是轻微的压力。硬度和柔软度取决于压力的强度。粗糙和光滑分别由间断和连续的压力产生，并需要在粗糙或光滑的表面上移动。触摸依赖于伴随运动中涉及的肌肉感觉的压力。疼痛明显不同于压力的感觉；但任何皮肤或肌肉感觉都可能通过过度刺激转变为疼痛。皮肤的所有部分都对压力和疼痛敏感；但某些部分，如指尖和舌尖，比其他部分更敏感。皮肤对热和冷的敏感性也有所不同。如果我们用一支热的或非常冷的铅笔尖轻轻地、慢慢地在皮肤上划过，很容易发现某些点会突然感到温暖或寒冷。通过这种方式，可以非常准确地定位温度感受器的末端器官。
Fig. 17.—Diagram showing distribution of hot and cold spots on the back of the hand. C, cold spots; H, hot spots.
图17.—手背热冷点分布示意图。C，冷点；H，热点。
96The Kinæsthetic Senses.—The muscles, tendons, and joints also give rise to perfectly definite sensations, but they have not been named as have the sensations from most of the other end-organs. Weight is the most clearly marked of these sensations. It is through the sensations connected with movements of muscles, tendons, and joints that we come to judge form, size, and distance.
肌肉、肌腱和关节也能产生非常明确的感觉，但它们并没有像其他大多数终端器官那样被命名。重量是这些感觉中最明显的一个。我们通过与肌肉、肌腱和关节运动相关的感觉来判断形状、大小和距离。
The Organic Senses.—Finally, to the sensations mentioned so far must be added those which come from the internal organs of the body. From the alimentary canal we get the sensations of hunger, thirst, and nausea; from the heart, lungs, and organs of sex come numerous well-defined but unnamed sensations which play an important part in making up the feeling-tone of our daily lives.
有机感觉——最后，我们还要加上来自身体内部器官的感觉。从消化道我们得到饥饿、口渴和恶心的感觉；从心脏、肺和性器官我们得到大量明确定义的但没有命名的感觉，它们在我们的日常生活中构成情绪基调方面起着重要的作用。
Thus we see that the senses may be looked upon as the sentries of the body, standing at the outposts where nature and ourselves meet. They discover the qualities of the various objects with which we come in contact and hand them over to the mind in the form of sensations. And these sensations are the raw material out of which we begin to construct our material environment. Only as we are equipped with good organs of sense, especially good eyes and ears, therefore, are we able to enter fully into the wonderful world about us and receive the stimuli necessary to our thought and action.
因此，我们可以看出感官可以被视为身体的哨兵，它们站在自然与我们自身相遇的前哨站。它们发现我们接触的各种物体的性质，并以感觉的形式将它们传递给心灵。这些感觉是我们开始构建物质环境的原材料。只有当我们拥有良好的感官器官，特别是良好的眼睛和耳朵时，我们才能充分进入我们周围的奇妙世界，并接收到对我们思考和行动至关重要的刺激。
4. PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION AND INTROSPECTION
4.观察和反省的问题
1. Observe a schoolroom of children at work with the aim of discovering any that show defects of vision or hearing. What are the symptoms? What is the effect of inability to hear or see well upon interest and attention?
观察一个教室里正在学习的孩子，目的是发现任何表现出视力或听力缺陷的孩子。这些症状是什么？听力或视力不佳对兴趣和注意力有什么影响？
2. Talk with your teacher about testing the eyes and ears of the children of some school. The simpler tests for vision97 and hearing are easily applied, and the expense for material almost nothing. What tests should be used? Does your school have the test card for vision?
2. 与老师讨论关于对一些学校的孩子进行视力和听力测试的问题。简单的视力和听力测试很容易实施，而且材料费用几乎为零。应该使用哪些测试？你的学校有视力测试卡吗？
3. Use a rotator or color tops for mixing discs of white and black to produce different shades of gray. Fix in mind the gray made of half white and half black; three-fourths white and one-fourth black; one-fourth-white and three-fourths black.
3. 用旋转器或彩色顶部混合白色和黑色的圆盘以产生不同的灰色阴影。记住由一半白和一半黑组成的灰色；四分之三的白和四分之一的黑；四分之一的白和四分之三的黑。
4. In the same way mix the two complementaries yellow and blue to produce a gray; mix red and green in the same way. Try various combinations of the four fundamental colors, and discover how different colors are produced. Seek for these same colors in nature—sky, leaves, flowers, etc.
4. 用相同的方法将两种互补色黄色和蓝色混合，产生灰色；同样地将红色和绿色混合。尝试四种基本颜色的不同组合，探索如何产生不同的颜色。在自然界中寻找这些相同的颜色——天空、树叶、花朵等。
5. Take a large wire nail and push it through a cork so that it can be handled without touching the metal with the fingers. Now cool it in ice or very cold water, then dry it and move the point slowly across the back of the hand. Do you feel occasional thrills of cold as the point passes over a bulb of Krause? Heat the nail with a match flame or over a lamp, and perform the same experiment. Do you feel the thrills of heat from the corpuscles of Ruffini?
5. 取一个大号铁钉，将其穿过一个软木塞，这样你就可以在不直接触摸金属的情况下操作它。现在把它放在冰水或非常冷的水中冷却，然后擦干，慢慢地将尖端在手背上移动。当尖端经过克劳泽小体时，你是否会偶尔感到一阵阵凉意？用火柴火焰或灯上加热铁钉，然后重复同样的实验。你是否能从鲁菲尼小体中感受到热感的刺激？
6. Try stopping the nostrils with cotton and having someone give you scraped apple, potato, onion, etc., and see whether, by taste alone, you can distinguish the difference. Why cannot sulphur be tasted?
6. 试着用棉花塞住鼻孔，让别人给你刮过的苹果、土豆、洋葱等，看看你能否仅凭味道区分它们。为什么尝不出硫磺的味道？
