[1] Wang H, Li N, Chivese T, et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Estimation of Global and Regional Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Prevalence for 2021 by International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group's Criteria[J]. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 2022,183:109050. DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2021.109050.
[2] Zhu Y, Zhang C. Prevalence of gestational diabetes and risk of progression to type 2 diabetes: a global perspective[J]. Curr Diab Rep, 2016,16(1):7. DOI: 10.1007/s11892-015-0699-x.
[3] Lowe WL Jr, Scholtens DM, Kuang A, et al. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Follow-up Study (HAPO FUS): maternal gestational diabetes mellitus and childhood glucose metabolism[J]. Diabetes Care, 2019,42(3):372-380. DOI: 10.2337/dc18-1646.
[4] HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes[J]. N Engl J Med, 2008,358(19):1991-2002. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa0707943.
[5] Kramer CK, Campbell S, Retnakaran R. Gestational diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Diabetologia, 2019,62(6):905-914. DOI: 10.1007/s00125-019-4840-2.
[6] O'Sullivan JB, Mahan CM. Criteria for the oral glucose tolerance test in pregnancy[J]. Diabetes, 1964,13:278-285.
[7] International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus Panel. International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy[J]. Diabetes Care, 2010,33(3):676-682. DOI: 10.2337/dc09-1848.
[8] 中华人民共和国卫生部. 妊娠期糖尿病诊断: WS 331-2011 [S/OL]. [2011-07-01]. https://std.samr.gov.cn/hb/search/stdHBDetailed?id=8B1827F1DFFEBB19E05397BE0A0AB44A.
Ministry of Health, PRC. Diagnosis criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus: WS 331-2011 [S/OL]. [2011-07-01]. https://std.samr.gov.cn/hb/search/stdHBDetailed?id=8B1827F1DFFEBB19E05397BE0A0AB44A.
[9] Crowther CA, Samuel D, McCowan L, et al. Lower versus higher glycemic criteria for diagnosis of gestational diabetes[J]. N Engl J Med, 2022,387(7):587-598. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2204091.
[10] Hillier TA, Pedula KL, Ogasawara KK, et al. A pragmatic, randomized clinical trial of gestational diabetes screening[J]. N Engl J Med, 2021,384(10):895-904. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2026028.
[11] Hivert MF, Backman H, Benhalima K, et al. Pathophysiology from preconception, during pregnancy, and beyond[J]. Lancet, 2024,404(10448):158-174. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)00827-4.
[12] 中华医学会妇产科学分会产科学组, 中华医学会围产医学分会, 中国妇幼保健协会妊娠合并糖尿病专业委员会. 妊娠期高血糖诊治指南(2022)[第二部分][J].中华妇产科杂志,2022,57(2):81-90. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn112141-20210917-00529.
Obstetrics Subgroup, Chinese Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chinese Medical Association; Chinese Society of Perinatal Medicine, Chinese Medical Association; Committee of Pregnancy with Diabetes Mellitus, China Maternal and Child Health Association. Guideline of diagnosis and treatment of hyperglycemia in pregnancy (2022) [Part two][J].Chin J Obstet Gynecol,2022,57(2):81-90. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn112141- 20210917-00529.
[13] Li M, Hinkle SN, Grantz KL, et al. Glycaemic status during pregnancy and longitudinal measures of fetal growth in a multi-racial US population: a prospective cohort study[J]. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2020,8(4):292-300. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30024-3.
[14] Zou JJ, Wei Q, Shi YY, et al. Longitudinal associations between maternal glucose levels and ultrasonographic fetal biometrics in a Shanghai cohort[J]. JAMA Netw Open, 2022,5(4):e226407. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.6407.
[15] Sovio U, Murphy HR, Smith GC. Accelerated fetal growth prior to diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study of nulliparous women[J]. Diabetes Care, 2016,39(6):982-987. DOI: 10.2337/dc16-0160.
[16] Sletner L, Jenum AK, Yajnik CS, et al. Fetal growth trajectories in pregnancies of European and South Asian mothers with and without gestational diabetes, a population-based cohort study[J]. PLoS One, 2017,12(3):e0172946. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172946.
[17] Grantz KL, Grewal J, Albert PS, et al. Dichorionic twin trajectories: the NICHD Fetal Growth Studies[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2016,215(2):221.e1-221.e16. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog. 2016.04.044.
[18] Melamed N, Avnon T, Barrett J, et al. Gestational diabetes in twin pregnancies-a pathology requiring treatment or a benign physiological adaptation?[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2024,231(1):92-104.e4. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2024.01.004.
[19] Sweeting A, Hannah W, Backman H, et al. Epidemiology and management of gestational diabetes[J]. Lancet, 2024,404(10448):175-192. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)00825-0.
[20] Simmons D, Gupta Y, Hernandez TL, et al. Call to action for a life course approach[J]. Lancet, 2024,404(10448):193-214. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)00826-2.
[21] Simmons D, Immanuel J, Hague WM, et al. Treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosed early in pregnancy[J]. N Engl J Med, 2023,388(23):2132-2144. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2214956.
[22] Sweeting A, Enticott J, Immanuel J, et al. Relationship between early-pregnancy glycemia and adverse outcomes: findings from the TOBOGM study[J]. Diabetes Care, 2024,47(12):2085-2092. DOI: 10.2337/dc23-2214.
[23] Haque MM, Tannous WK, Herman WH, et al. Cost-effectiveness of diagnosis and treatment of early gestational diabetes mellitus: economic evaluation of the TOBOGM study, an international multicenter randomized controlled trial[J]. EClinicalMedicine, 2024,71:102610. DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102610.
[24] Benhalima K, Geerts I, Calewaert P, et al. The 2024 Flemish consensus on screening for gestational diabetes mellitus early and later in pregnancy[J]. Acta Clin Belg, 2024,79(3):217-224. DOI: 10.1080/17843286.2024.2384258.
[25] WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Diagnostic Criteria and Classification of Hyperglycaemia First Detected in Pregnancy[M]. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2013:5.
[26] Zhu WW, Yang HX, Wei YM, et al. Evaluation of the value of fasting plasma glucose in the first prenatal visit to diagnose gestational diabetes mellitus in china[J]. Diabetes Care, 2013,36(3):586-590. DOI: 10.2337/dc12-1157.
[27] Liu B, Cai J, Xu Y, et al. Early diagnosed gestational diabetes mellitus is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes: a prospective cohort study[J]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2020,105(12):dgaa633 [pii]. DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa633.
[28] Immanuel J, Simmons D. Screening and treatment for early-onset gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Curr Diab Rep, 2017,17(11):115. DOI: 10.1007/s11892-017-0943-7.
[29] Harper LM, Jauk V, Longo S, et al. Early gestational diabetes screening in obese women: a randomized controlled trial[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2020,222(5):495.e1-495.e8. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.12.021.
[30] Vinter CA, Tanvig MH, Christensen MH, et al. Lifestyle intervention in Danish obese pregnant women with early gestational diabetes mellitus according to WHO 2013 criteria does not change pregnancy outcomes: results from the LiP (Lifestyle in Pregnancy) study[J]. Diabetes Care, 2018,41(10):2079-2085. DOI: 10.2337/dc18-0808.
[31] Roeder HA, Moore TR, Wolfson MT, et al. Treating hyperglycemia in early pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM, 2019,1(1):33-41. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajogmf.2019.03.003.
[32] Simmons D, Nema J, Parton C, et al. The treatment of booking gestational diabetes mellitus (TOBOGM) pilot randomised controlled trial[J]. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 2018,18(1):151. DOI: 10.1186/s12884-018-1809-y.
[33] Gao C, Sun X, Lu L, et al. Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in mainland China: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. J Diabetes Investig, 2019,10(1):154-162. DOI: 10.1111/jdi.12854.
[34] Li Y, Teng D, Shi X, et al. Prevalence of diabetes recorded in mainland China using 2018 diagnostic criteria from the American Diabetes Association: national cross sectional study[J]. BMJ, 2020,369:m997. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.m997.
[35] Wang Z, Wu Y, Wu J, et al. Trends in prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes among adults in Beijing, China, from 2008 to 2017[J]. Diabet Med, 2021,38(9):e14487. DOI: 10.1111/dme. 14487.
[36] Wei Y, Xu Q, Yang H, et al. Preconception diabetes mellitus and adverse pregnancy outcomes in over 6.4 million women: a population-based cohort study in China[J]. PLoS Med, 2019,16(10):e1002926. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002926.
[37] Weissgerber TL, Mudd LM. Preeclampsia and diabetes[J]. Curr Diab Rep, 2015,15(3):9. DOI: 10.1007/s11892-015-0579-4.
[38] Murphy HR, Howgate C, O'Keefe J, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of pregnant women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: a 5-year national population-based cohort study[J]. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2021,9(3):153-164. DOI: 10.1016/S2213- 8587(20)30406-X.
[39] Juan J, Yang H. Prevalence, prevention, and lifestyle intervention of gestational diabetes mellitus in China[J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020,17(24):9517. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249517.
[40] 中华医学会妇产科学分会产科学组, 中华医学会围产医学分会, 中国妇幼保健协会妊娠合并糖尿病专业委员会. 妊娠期高血糖诊治指南(2022)[第一部分][J].中华妇产科杂志,2022,57(1):3-12. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn112141-20210917-00528.
Obstetrics Subgroup, Chinese Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chinese Medical Association; Chinese Society of Perinatal Medicine, Chinese Medical Association; Committee of Pregnancy with Diabetes Mellitus, China Maternal and Child Health Association. Guideline of diagnosis and treatment of hyperglycemia in pregnancy(2022)[Part one][J].Chin J Obstet Gynecol,2022,57(1):3-12. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn112141- 20210917-00528.
[41] Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period[M]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), 2020:13.
[42] Quaresima P, Visconti F, Chiefari E, et al. Appropriate timing of gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosis in medium- and low-risk women: effectiveness of the Italian NHS recommendations in preventing fetal macrosomia[J]. J Diabetes Res, 2020, 2020:5393952. DOI: 10.1155/2020/5393952.
[43] ACOG Clinical Practice Update: Screening for gestational and pregestational diabetes in pregnancy and postpartum[J]. Obstet Gynecol, 2024,144(1):20-23.DOI: 10.1097/AOG. 0000000000005612.
[44] GO MOMs Study Group. Design, rationale and protocol for Glycemic Observation and Metabolic Outcomes in Mothers and Offspring (GO MOMs): an observational cohort study[J]. BMJ Open, 2024,14(6):e084216. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2024- 084216.
[45] Xu J, Jing Q, Shi H, et al. Validation of the clinical efficacy of one-day outpatient management of patients with gestational diabetes mellitus[J]. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 2025,38(1):2436086. DOI: 10.1080/14767058.2024.2436086.
[46] Feng Y, Yu Q, Gu F, et al. Improvement effect of insulin resistance in one-day outpatient service by reducing stress adaptation disorders in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus[J]. Front Nutr, 2024,11:1450127. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2024.1450127.
[47] Tward C, Barrett J, Berger H, et al. Does gestational diabetes affect fetal growth and pregnancy outcome in twin pregnancies?[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2016,214(5):653.e1-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2015.11.006.
[48] Hiersch L, Berger H, Okby R, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus is associated with adverse outcomes in twin pregnancies[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2019,220(1):102.e1-102.e8. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2018.10.027.
[49] Monteiro SS, Fonseca L, Santos TS, et al. Gestational diabetes in twin pregnancy: a predictor of adverse fetomaternal outcomes?[J]. Acta Diabetol, 2022,59(6):811-818. DOI: 10.1007/s00592-022-01874-3.
[50] Sheehan A, Umstad MP, Cole S, et al. Does gestational diabetes cause additional risk in twin pregnancy?[J]. Twin Res Hum Genet, 2019,22(1):62-69. DOI: 10.1017/thg.2018.72.
[51] Hung TH, Hsieh TT, Shaw SW, et al. Risk factors and adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes for women with dichorionic twin pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes mellitus: a retrospective cross-sectional study[J]. J Diabetes Investig, 2021,12(6):1083-1091. DOI: 10.1111/jdi.13441.
[52] Greco E, Calanducci M, Nicolaides KH, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus and adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes in twin and singleton pregnancies: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2024,230(2):213-225. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2023.08.011.
[53] Caimari F, Ramos A, Pujol I, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus in women with multiple pregnancies: is the metabolic abnormality milder?[J]. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 2016,29(15):2485-2489. DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2015.1090424.
[54] Wein P, Warwick MM, Beischer NA. Gestational diabetes in twin pregnancy: prevalence and long-term implications[J]. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol, 1992,32(4):325-327. DOI: 10.1111/j.1479- 828x.1992.tb02843.x.
[55] Hiersch L, Shah BR, Berger H, et al. DEVELOPING twin-specific 75-g oral glucose tolerance test diagnostic thresholds for gestational diabetes based on the risk of future maternal diabetes: a population-based cohort study[J]. BJOG, 2021,128(12):1975-1985. DOI: 10.1111/1471-0528.16773.
[56] Ashwal E, Berger H, Hiersch L, et al. Gestational diabetes and fetal growth in twin compared with singleton pregnancies[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2021,225(4):420.e1-420.e13. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2021.04.225.
[57] Fox NS, Gerber RS, Saltzman DH, et al. Glycemic control in twin pregnancies with gestational diabetes: are we improving or worsening outcomes?[J]. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 2016,29(7):1041-1045. DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2015.1038517.
[58] Berezowsky A, Ardestani S, Hiersch L, et al. Glycemic control and neonatal outcomes in twin pregnancies with gestational diabetes mellitus[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2023,229(6):682.e1-682.e13. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2023.06.046.
[59] Ma J, Yang D, Lv J, et al. Obstetric and neonatal outcomes in the management of twin pregnancies with gestational diabetes using the IADPSG criteria for singleton pregnancies[J]. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 2024,24(1):770. DOI: 10.1186/s12884- 024-06970-6.
[60] Weitzner O, Barrett J, Murphy KE, et al. National and international guidelines on the management of twin pregnancies: a comparative review[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2023,229(6):577-598. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2023.05.022.