IntroductionOther Section

Breast cancer is one of the most common malignancies among women, with its incidence and mortality rates on the rise globally (1). Ultrasound plays a vital role in detecting breast lesions, serving as a first-line screening tool. In China, where many women have dense breast tissue, ultrasound is often the preferred imaging modality (2). The American College of Radiology’s Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS) (3) provides a clear classification of breast tumor malignancy, which is essential for devising treatment plans and assessing prognosis, and is widely applied in clinical practice. However, due to its subjective nature, diagnostic results may vary across physicians with different levels of experience and from different regions (4).

In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has demonstrated outstanding performance in cognitive tasks (5-10). The introduction of the large language model (LLM) ChatGPT by OpenAI represents a significant advancement in natural language (6) processing, offering substantial potential for improving diagnostic accuracy and efficiency (9) while reducing human errors in the medical field (11).

Despite the potential benefits, AI models face limitations in specialized domains such as medical diagnosis, including the scarcity of training data, which can impair the model’s capacity for generalization and precise prediction making (12). Furthermore, AI models may not be sufficiently effective or dependable for use in difficult medical diagnostic tasks (13). Moreover, the “black box” nature of AI models, particularly in the context of medicine, can present significant challenges due to the lack of transparency in decision-making (14). This opacity can lead to mistrust and hinder the wider adoption of AI technologies in critical areas such as healthcare. Consequently, research into model interpretability is not only essential, but also timely (15). The “chain of thought” (CoT) methodology we employed in our previous study represents an attempt at improving model interpretability (16). This method provides a visual breakdown of the AI’s decision-making process, thereby enhancing our understanding of how the AI model arrives at a given conclusion. Illuminating the AI decision-making process can improve AI performance, foster trust, and facilitate the smoother integration of AI into healthcare by addressing one of the major concerns of healthcare professionals—the unpredictability and opacity of AI decision-making.

This study aimed to clarify the potential of the ChatGPT-3.5 model to help ultrasound doctors effectively determine BI-RADS classification, improve diagnostic performance in clinical settings, and analyze the causes of misdiagnosis, to better understand the limitations of LLM in this context. We present this article in accordance with the STROBE reporting checklist (available at https://qims.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/qims-24-141/rc).

MethodsOther Section

Data collection

From March 2023 to April 2023, we retrospectively collected data from patients with breast cancer treated at Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University. All patients with breast masses classified as BI-RADS 4a or higher underwent either core needle biopsy or surgical pathology to confirm their diagnosis. Patients with BI-RADS 2 and 3 lesions were followed up for 3–5 years as typical benign cases. In total, 131 ultrasound reports from 131 patients were included, all of whom were female, with an average age of 43 (range, 21–78) years. Benign cases included breast cysts, fibroadenomas, and mammary gland diseases, while malignant cases were all invasive breast cancers. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (as revised in 2013) and received ethical approval from the Medical Ethics Committee of Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University (No. 2022-P2-060-01). The requirement for individual consent was waived due to the retrospective nature of the analysis.

A total of 57 evaluating doctors participated in the study, including 20 junior doctors (1–5 years of experience), 18 intermediate doctors (6–10 years of experience), and 19 senior doctors (>10 years of experience). They were from 57 hospitals, including Binzhou Central Hospital in Shandong Province, Beijing Children’s Hospital Affiliated with Capital Medical University, and Beijing Friendship Hospital Affiliated with Capital Medical University.

Diagnostic results generated by ChatGPT

The ChatGPT (17) series, created by OpenAI, is a cutting-edge pretrained language model that is capable of performing intricate natural language processing tasks, including generating articles, answering questions (18), translating languages, and producing code. The workflow of this study is illustrated in Figure 1. In our analysis, we input breast ultrasound medical reports into ChatGPT-3.5 and prompted it to generate diagnoses and treatment recommendations (TR). We subsequently collected the output reports for evaluation. Figure S1 shows the process of question and answer collection. The prompt provided was as follows: “Based on the following breast ultrasound description, please provide a comprehensive diagnosis (BI-RADS classification) and corresponding treatment recommendations”.

Figure 1 Overview of the experimental workflow. The procedure begins with data collection and the acquisition of ultrasound reports and progresses to the generation of diagnoses and treatment outcomes using ChatGPT-3.5. The results underwent four experimental evaluations: (I) physician assessment of AI-generated reports; (II) a Turing test to evaluate reports created by doctors versus those produced by AI; (III) a reproducibility experiment involving the generation of reports twice and a comparison of differences; and (IV) an analysis of erroneous reports. AI, artificial intelligence.

Evaluation of report performance

In order to gain deeper insights into ChatGPT’s effectiveness in producing diagnostic reports for breast cancer, we gathered and assessed the ratings of these reports based on a specific set of evaluation criteria (see Table S1). These criteria included structure and organization (S&O), professional terminology and expression (PTE), BI-RADS classification, malignancy diagnosis (MD), TR, clarity and comprehensibility (C&C), likelihood of being written by a physician (LWBP), ultrasound doctor AI acceptance (UDAIA), and overall evaluation (OE). Each criterion was rated on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 indicating completely incorrect or unsatisfactory and 5 indicating completely correct or satisfactory. The details of the scoring table can be found in the supplementary materials (Table S2). Furthermore, we assessed the proficiency of AI-generated reports by juxtaposing their evaluations with those provided by physicians possessing varying degrees of clinical experience.

Turing test and reproducibility experiment

To evaluate doctors’ ability to distinguish between human-written and AI-generated reports (19), we incorporated 50% of the ChatGPT-generated reports into the evaluation set. Doctors assessed the likelihood that each report was authored by a physician, and we calculated the rate of accurate identifications. If their accuracy surpassed random guessing (50%), it would indicate that ChatGPT successfully passed the Turing test.

To evaluate the consistency of ChatGPT’s responses, we conducted a comparison of two outputs produced by distinct transient model instances (20). For each inquiry, we analyzed the scores allocated to both responses and conducted a statistical assessment to identify significant disparities (21), thereby offering insights into the reliability of ChatGPT’s performance.

Erroneous report analysis

We collected and examined misdiagnosed reports, defined as those with low scores (1–2 points). Two doctors with 12 years of experience analyzed and categorized the reasons for these errors (22). This analysis aimed to identify patterns and potential weaknesses in the ChatGPT model in order to guide future improvements and training strategies (23).

GPT CoT visualization

The CoT (16) method breaks down the decision-making process of the GPT model into several stages, depicting it as a flowchart. This method provides a clear and insightful means to scrutinizing the model’s decision-making patterns, enhancing our understanding of its diagnostic process. The visual representation elucidates the decisions made by ChatGPT-3.5 in assigning a BI-RADS score, assessing malignancy, suggesting a treatment plan, and generating a diagnostic report.

Statistical analyses

The statistical analysis was carried out using the Mann-Whitney test (24), provided by the SciPy package (25) with all code written in Python 3.8 (Python Software Foundation, Wilmington, DE, USA). A P value lower than 0.05 was deemed to be statistically significant.

ResultsOther Section

Report generation performance evaluation result

The mean values of the ChatGPT-3.5 performance in medical reports for different metrics were as follows: S&O, 4.08 [95% confidence interval (CI): 3.99–4.17], PTE, 4.08 (95% CI: 3.99–4.18); BI-RADS classification, 3.77 (95% CI: 3.64–3.90); MD, 3.86 (95% CI: 3.74–3.98); TR, 4.03 (95% CI: 3.93–4.14); C&C, 4.00 (95% CI: 3.89–4.10); UDAIA, 3.92 (95% CI: 3.81–4.03); and OE, 3.89 (95% CI: 3.77–4.00). The results can be found in Figure 2A. ChatGPT-3.5 exhibited remarkable performance in S&O, PTE, TR, and C&C, with scores approaching or surpassing 4. However, the scores for BI-RADS, MD, LWBP, and UDAIA were slightly lower, indicating areas in need of improvement. In summary, ChatGPT-3.5 achieved an OE score of 3.89, indicating that its performance was deemed generally acceptable. We employed a radar chart to exhibit the performance of various types of physicians and the AI system (see Figure 2B), which indicated that ChatGPT-3.5 has comparable performance to doctors in multiple aspects, particularly excelling in S&O, PTE, TR, and C&C. We conducted statistical analyses to compare the performance of ChatGPT-3.5 with that of doctors. The Mann-Whitney test indicated that the differences between the AI and doctors were statistically significant for BI-RADS classification (P value =0.028) and MD (P value =0.033). These findings suggest that while ChatGPT-3.5 performs well, there are certain areas in which expertise still outperforms AI.

Figure 2 Assessment of report quality and accuracy by physicians at various experience levels and by AI. (A) Distribution of ratings for accuracy and additional evaluation criteria among reports from JD, ID, SD, the collective Dr group, and ChatGPT (AI). (B) Radar chart showing average ratings for evaluation metrics based on varying experience levels of doctor- and AI-generated reports. JD, junior doctor; AI, artificial intelligence; ID, intermediate doctor; SD, senior doctor; Dr, doctor; CI, confidence interval; BI-RADS, Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System; PTE, professional terminology and expression; S&O, structure and organization; OE, overall evaluation; UDAIA, ultrasound doctor AI acceptance; LWBP, likelihood of being written by physician; C&C, clarity and comprehensibility; TR, treatment recommendations; MD, malignancy diagnosis.

Agreement analysis

To further evaluate the agreement between doctors and ChatGPT, we performed Cohen kappa analysis. The Cohen kappa coefficient for BI-RADS Classification was 0.68, indicating substantial agreement between the AI and physicians. This suggests that while there are discrepancies, the AI-generated reports are generally in alignment with those written by doctors.

Turing test results

We used comparative bar charts and pie charts to evaluate the distinctions between AI-generated reports and those authored by human doctors (with a score of 5 representing a high likelihood of being human written and a score of 1 denoting a very low likelihood). The proportion of doctor-written reports that garnered a score of 5 was 33.70%, whereas AI-generated reports exhibited a marginally higher proportion in this category at 35.34%. This observation suggests that AI-generated reports convincingly approximate the characteristics of reports composed by medical professionals.

Reproducibility analysis

Figure 3 Boxplot illustrating the score distribution of ChatGPT-generated reports for the same patient across various time intervals. The results indicated consistent a performance across various evaluation criteria. The key mean scores for both experiments included those for S&O (4.12 and 4.07; P=0.59), PTE (4.18 and 4.00; P=0.19), and C&C (4.09 and 3.63; P=0.048). The AI-generated medical reports showed consistent performance throughout the experiments, with high mean scores being maintained for most criteria. Although some variations were observed in specific areas, such as in BI-RADS classification (3.88 and 3.37; P=0.06) and MD (3.91 and 3.40; P=0.047), the overall performance of the AI in generating medical reports remains promising. The consistency in scores across most of the evaluation criteria warrants further investigation into the potential applications and development of AI-generated medical reports.

Figure 3 Boxplot illustrating the score distribution of ChatGPT-generated reports for the same patient across various time intervals. The differences in P values are as follows: S&O, 0.586; PTE, 0.195; BI-RADS classification, 0.058; MD, 0.047; TR, 0.067; C&C, 0.049; LWBP, 0.093; UDAIA, 0.044; and OE, 0.016. S&O, structure and organization; PTE, professional terminology and expression; BI-RADS, Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System; MD, malignancy diagnosis; TR, treatment recommendation; C&C, clarity and comprehensibility; LWBP, likelihood of being written by physician; UDAIA, ultrasound doctor artificial intelligence acceptance; OE, overall evaluation.

Erroneous report analysis

The following is a summary of results for the erroneous reports generated by ChatGPT and reviewed by clinical doctors: For incorrect diagnoses, cases with low scores (score 1–2) indicated errors in distinguishing between benign and malignant diagnoses. For example, a benign case was diagnosed as BI-RADS 4b even though we defined 4a and above as malignant.

In terms of inconsistencies, the BI-RADS classification did not always correspond with the appropriate clinical recommendations, leading to inconsistencies in the generated report’s content. For instance, a report indicated a benign diagnosis but suggested a biopsy. This inconsistency may be due to the model’s inability to fully understand the context and relationships between different sections of the report. For overdiagnosis, there was overdiagnosis in some benign lesions.

CoT visualization

The visualization results in Figure 4 depict the key steps and considerations in the decision-making process of the ChatGPT model. First, the model extracts crucial information from the patient’s ultrasound reports, such as breast echogenicity, presence or absence of masses and abnormal blood flow in the breasts, characteristics of any nodules found, and axillary lymph node status. Next, with this data, the model calculates the BI-RADS score, a crucial metric in assessing breast cancer. The calculation involves an evaluation of the breast echogenicity, structural disorder, presence or absence of masses and abnormal blood flow, characteristics of nodules, and lymph node status. Further, the model combines the previously calculated BI-RADS score. This step is not merely an evaluation of individual parameters but also an integrated risk assessment that computes the likelihood of cancer. Finally, based on the above information and diagnosis result, the model synthesizes all this information to provide a suggestion on what treatment might be suitable. This implies that the final suggestion is not solely dependent on a single parameter or result but is a comprehensive consideration of the risk level of breast cancer. Our visualization chart provides a clear and explicit representation of this process, enabling us to better understand the decision-making logic of the model in the diagnostic and treatment suggestion process. Key nodes in the model’s thought chain, such as BI-RADS score and nodule characteristics, are clearly highlighted. This research offers insight into the cognitive processes underlying the decision-making framework of the ChatGPT model in the diagnosis and recommendation of therapeutic interventions for breast cancer.

Figure 4 Visualization of the CoT for breast cancer diagnosis and treatment suggestions. This CoT consists of several steps. The “Extract Data ()” function extracts essential patient information from ultrasound reports. The “BI-RADS score calculation” operation evaluates the breast lesions according to the BI-RADS based on the extracted information. Finally, the “Treatment recommendations” function suggests what treatment might be advisable based on the matched results. BI-RADS, Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System; CoT, chain of thought.

DiscussionOther Section

In this study, we assessed ChatGPT’s performance in generating breast cancer diagnosis reports, concentrating on report scoring, quality comparisons among doctors with varying experience levels, Turing test outcomes, reproducibility analysis, and erroneous report examination. Our findings offer valuable insights into ChatGPT’s present capabilities, highlighting potential areas for improvement and practical applications within the medical domain.

Report performance

The evaluation of ChatGPT-3.5’s performance in generating medical reports, based on metrics such as S&O, PTE, TR, and C&C, yielded promising results. With mean scores around or above 4, the AI demonstrated potential for producing high-quality reports comparable to those written by radiologists. Literature also supports the promise of automated systems in medical documentation (26,27).

However, the AI’s performance in BI-RADS classification, MD, and UDAIA needs improvement. This aligns with the findings of Pang et al. (28), who noted issues in AI’s accuracy in specific medical classification tasks, and of Zhou et al. (29), who identified challenges in complex decision support and multidimensional data analysis. Thus, while ChatGPT-3.5 excels in various areas, further development is needed for comprehensive and accurate performance.

The radar chart comparison (Figure 2B) between different doctors and the AI highlights its potential in medical report generation. The literature suggests AI’s significant promise in assisting healthcare professionals (30), supporting these findings.

Turning test and reproducibility

The Turing test results provide valuable insights into AI’s ability emulate reports written by human physicians. Figure 5 shows that 35.34% of AI-generated reports achieved a score of 5, indicating a high likelihood of being perceived as human written. This slightly surpassed the 33.70% for doctor-authored reports, suggesting that AI-generated reports can closely resemble doctor-authored reports and sometimes even surpass them in perceived authenticity. Thus, AI could streamline the medical reporting process, reduce healthcare professionals’ workload, and allow more time for patient care (30-32).

Figure 5 Evaluation of the perceived human authorship of reports created by physicians at various experience levels and those generated by AI. [1, extremely unlikely; 2, somewhat unlikely; 3, moderately likely; 4, likely; 5, extremely likely (to be human written)]. (A) A histogram showing the probability distribution of reports evaluated by the Dr group. (B) A pie chart showing the distribution of Turing test scores for reports authored by AI and doctors. AI, artificial intelligence; Dr, doctor.

The reproducibility of experiment results (Figure 3) further demonstrated the consistency and reliability of AI-generated reports across multiple evaluation criteria. The AI’s performance showed high consistency in S&O, PTE, and C&C, underscoring its potential in maintaining high quality in medical reporting (31,32).

However, the inconsistency in BI-RADS classification and MD still needs to be addressed. Previous studies have noted similar challenges, where AI systems exhibited variability in accuracy for certain medical tasks (32,33). Resolving these issue will improve AI-generated report quality and bolster healthcare professionals’ confidence in in them for decision-making.

Erroneous reports

The results of erroneous reports indicated several shortcomings in ChatGPT’s handling of medical texts. First, the inconsistencies suggest that the model struggles with long-text comprehension, leading to context and relationship discrepancies within reports (34,35). Improving attention mechanisms could mitigate these issues. Second, ChatGPT’s reliance on physician descriptions without independent image analysis resulted in overdiagnosis in benign cases. Integrating computer vision techniques could improve diagnostic accuracy (36).

Finally, the model often overlooked details in cases with multiple lesions, focusing on high-malignancy descriptions and missing others. Enhancing multisource information processing could address this flaw (37).

CoT

The interpretability of AI models is crucial in healthcare, as it allows doctors and patients to understand and trust AI decisions, significantly improving patient outcomes. The CoT concept helps trace the AI’s thought process, identifying potential weaknesses and biases, thereby enhancing performance and building user trust. This is vital for the integration of AI into healthcare settings (38,39).

Explainability involves understanding why the model makes a given classification, such as assigning a BI-RADS score. This requires evaluating features such as nodule size, shape, margins, and microcalcifications to provide a clear rationale behind recommendations. Previous studies emphasize the importance of explainability in AI for healthcare, highlighting its role in improving trust and acceptance among users (40,41).

Limitations and future work

ChatGPT still has several limitations in the medical context. First, the model’s inability to analyze images directly, relying solely on physician-provided text, suggests there is a need to integrate computer vision techniques (42-44). Second, longer texts can lead to inconsistencies, and addressing this requires improving the comprehension and generation of longer texts. Third, specialized fields such as ultrasound report analysis require more domain-specific knowledge. Future research should focus on incorporating expert knowledge and clinical guidelines (36,45). Fourth, potential biases should be considered, as physicians’ familiarity with AI-generated reports might influence their assessments. Ensuring trust and transparency involves robust validation processes, clear documentation, and human oversight (46,47). Finally, the generalizability of this study may be limited to breast cancer diagnosis. Further research should explore AI-generated reports in other medical domains (23,48).

ConclusionsOther Section

The findings of this study support ChatGPT’s potential in analyzing breast ultrasound reports and providing diagnostic and TR. It exhibited strong performance across various evaluation criteria and convincingly emulated reports written by physicians. Moreover, the reproducibility results indicate a high level of consistency in essential aspects of medical reporting. However, the analysis of erroneous reports suggests that there are several areas where improvements are needed, including model understanding and context, image analysis, and the handling of multiple lesions. Furthermore, the visual dissection of the AI’s CoT provides invaluable insights into the decision-making process, highlighting the importance of model interpretability for enhancing performance, building user trust, and effectively integrating AI into healthcare environments.

AcknowledgmentsOther Section

We express our sincere gratitude to the 57 medical professionals from various institutions who participated in this study.

Funding: This study was supported by Capital’s Funds for Health Improvement and Research (grant No. 2022-4-1105 to P.S.).

FootnoteOther Section

Reporting Checklist: The authors have completed the STROBE reporting checklist. Available at https://qims.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/qims-24-141/rc

Conflicts of Interest: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form (available at https://qims.amegroups.com/article/view/10.21037/qims-24-141/coif). The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Ethical Statement: The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (as revised in 2013) and ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Medical Ethics Committee of Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University (No. 2022-P2-060-01). The requirement for individual consent was waived due to the retrospective nature of the analysis.

Open Access Statement: This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits the non-commercial replication and distribution of the article with the strict proviso that no changes or edits are made and the original work is properly cited (including links to both the formal publication through the relevant DOI and the license). See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Cite this article as: Sun P, Qian L, Wang Z. Preliminary experiments on interpretable ChatGPT-assisted diagnosis for breast ultrasound radiologists. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2024;14(9):6601-6612. doi: 10.21037/qims-24-141

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