湖北，何以荆楚？

楚文化因楚人、楚国而得名，是先秦时期长江流域地域文化的典型代表，其特征恢诡谲怪，惊采绝艳，是华夏文明的重要组成部分。

The Chu culture got its name because of the Chu people and the State of Chu. It is a typical representative of the pre-Qin cultures in the Yangtze River valley. It is bizarre, splendid and fascinating, and it is an important part of Chinese civilisation.

战国 漆木彩绘双头镇墓兽 图/荆州博物馆藏

The Chu people are enterprising and innovative. They have created the unique, self-contained, and profound Chu culture, which stands alongside the Zongzhou culture in the Yellow River Basin. The philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi, the poetry of Qu Yuan and Song Yu, and the remarkable artistic achievements reflected in Chu artifacts demonstrate the lofty realm of Chu culture. The superb bronze smelting technology, the exquisite silk embroidery craftsmanship, and the gorgeous lacquering art are important material pillars of Chu culture in its heyday.

湖北省是楚国的核心地区，也是楚国考古成果最集中、最丰硕的地区。湖北的文物考古工作者自20世纪60年代以来陆续发掘了数千座楚墓，出土了数以万计的楚文物，其完整和精美程度令人赞叹，其学术价值极高，大部分被湖北省博物馆收藏。著名的纪南城遗址、望山楚墓、包山楚墓、九连墩楚墓，以及郭店楚简等重大考古发现，对于研究楚文化，推动楚文化成为国际学界研究热点发挥了重要作用。

Hubei Province is the core area of Chu culture as well as the area where archaeological achievements concerning the State of Chuare the most concentrated and numerous. Since the 1960s, the antiquarians and archaeologists in the province have successively excavated thousands of Chu tombs and unearthed tens of thousands of Chu cultural relics. These cultural relics are impressively exquisite and well preserved. They are of great academic value, and most of them are collected by the HBPM. The famous Jinancheng site, the Chu tomb at the Wangshan site, the Chu tomb at the Baoshan site, the Chu tomb at the Jiuliandun site, the Chu bamboo slips at the Guodian site and other major archaeological discoveries have played an important role in the study of Chu culture and have aroused the intense interest of international academic circles.

楚纪南故城俯瞰 图/湖北省文物考古研究院供图

自西周初年熊绎被封为楚国国君，至公元前223年楚被秦国所灭，楚国立国约八百年。

From the early Western Zhou dynasty when Xiong Yi became its king to 223 BCE when it was destroyed by the State of Qin, the State of Chu existed for about 800 years.

楚国八百年展厅 图/湖北省博物馆

楚人崇凤。传说楚人的祖先祝融是凤鸟的化身，也是火神兼雷神。出土《包山楚简》的墓主楚左尹邵力，在他奉祀的祖先名字中，祝融高居第二位。汉代《白虎通》说，祝融“其精为鸟，离为鸾”。楚人尊凤，反映在出土的青铜器、漆木器、乐器、生活用器以及各种服饰用品中。故祝融作为楚人的先祖是确信无疑的。楚人尊凤祭祖是一种可贵的精神典范。

The Chu people worshiped the phoenix. Legend has it that Zhu Rong, the ancestor of the Chu people, was the incarnation of a phoenix as well as the god of fire and the god of thunder. Among the ancestors worshiped by Zuoyin ShaoLi, the owner of the tomb at the Baoshan site where the Chu bamboo slips were unearthed, Zhu Rong ranked second. According to Bai Hu Tong of the Han dynasty, Zhu Rong 'was the incarnation of a phoenix, or the sun'. The Chu people's worship of the phoenix is reflected in unearthed bronze artefacts, lacquerware, musical instruments, daily articles, clothes and accessories. Therefore, Zhu Rong is undoubtedly the ancestor of the Chu people. The Chu people's worship of the phoenix and their ancestors has set a commendable spiritual example.

鬻熊是楚人的始祖。商朝末年，楚人部族首领鬻熊率领族人投奔周文王，受到了周文王的器重。商末周初，楚人助周灭商。周成王封熊绎为子爵，立国于荆山，以“江汉沮漳”为望，始有楚国。

Yu Xiong is the earliest ancestor of the Chu people. In the late Shang dynasty, Yu Xiong, chief of the Chu clan, led his clansmen to seek shelter from King Wen of Zhou and was put in an important position. In the late Shang and early Zhou dynasties, the Chu people helped the Zhou eliminate the Shang. After being made a viscount by King Cheng of Zhou, Xiong Yi settled near Mt Jingshan and established the State of Chu, which covered the Yangtze, Hanjiang, Juheand Zhanghe river basins.

楚王车马阵展厅兵车复原场景 图/荆州文旅之声

楚国受封之初，国土少，国势弱。从熊绎开始，历经五代六君，惨淡经营约一个半世纪，到西周晚期熊绎第四代孙熊渠时楚国开始崛起振兴。楚王熊渠是一位既有胆识又有进取精神的君主，他兴兵伐庸、扬越和鄂，封三子为王，开拓江上楚蛮之地。扩大了楚国的疆土，更攫取了长江中游的铜矿资源。这对楚国的振兴起了重要作用。楚国国势日益强大，不断吞并周边的小国。

When the State of Chu was newly established, it was weak and had a small territory. Starting from Xiong Yi, six kings of five generations ruled over the state for about one and a half centuries. In the late Western Zhou dynasty, under the rule of Xiong Qu, a fourth-generation descendent of Xiong Yi, the State of Chu began to rise. King Xiong Qu of Chu was both courageous and enterprising. He started war to conquer the states of Yong, Yangyue and E before conferring them to three of his sons, thus bringing under the rule of the barbarian state of Chu the Yangtze and Hanjiang River basins. The State of Chu not only expanded its territory, but also seized the copper resources in the middle reaches of the Yangtze. These factors played an important role in the rise of the state. As it grew stronger and stronger, the State of Chu continued to annex small states around it.

鸟瞰楚王车马阵景区（熊家冢国家考古遗址公园）图/刘曙松 摄

春秋时期，楚国开疆拓土，国势渐强。从楚武王灭权国、创县制，得志汉东，到楚文王越汉水、出方城，进入中原，再到楚成王聚国力、争霸权，霸业初现。楚国得到发展壮大。

During the Spring and Autumn Period, the State of Chu expanded its territory and became stronger step by step. First, King Wu of Chu destroyed the State of Quan, set up the county system and occupied the east of the Hanjiang River. Then, King Wen of Chu crossed the Hanjiang River, left the walled city and entered the Central Plains. Later, King Cheng of Chu further strengthened the state, fought for hegemony and essentially obtained the dominant position.

车马坑博物馆内展示的真车真马考古文物 图/刘曙松

到楚庄王即位时（公元前614年），楚国处于混乱中，外有威胁，内有“二子之乱”。楚庄王继位时还不到20岁，继位三年不理朝政，只知玩乐。史书记载，当时有伍举、苏从相继入谏，在回答伍举所问“有只大鸟，停在南方的大山上，三年不飞也不鸣，不知是什么鸟？”隐语时，庄王说:“三年不飞，飞将冲天；三年不鸣，一鸣惊人。”伍举明白了庄王以鸟自喻的用意。原来，庄王这些年不是在玩乐，而是在观察和考核他的臣属。不久，庄王开始治理朝政，任用贤能，罢免庸才，惩治奸臣，亲赴前线，歼灭庸人，使楚国转危为安。

When King Zhuang of Chuascended the throne (614 BCE), the State of Chu was in disarray and was beset with threats externally and troubles (started by Princes Xie and Douke) internally. When King Zhuang of Chu succeeded to the throne, he was less than 20 years old. In his first three years, he completely ignored state affairs and indulged himself in hunting and partying. According to historical records, the courtiers WuJu and Su Gong successively remonstrated with him. Once, Wu Ju said, 'A big bird perches on a lofty mountain in the south. It neither flies nor sings for three years. I wonder what kind of bird it is?'King Zhuang of Chu replied, 'It doesn't fly for three years, but once it takes off, it will soar to the sky; it doesn't sing for three years, but once it sings, it will amaze everyone.' WuJu understood that King Zhuang of Chu was comparing himself to that bird. The king was not really indulging himself in hunting and partying, but was observing and assessing his courtiers. Soon, King Zhuang of Chu began to attend to state affairs. He appointed virtuous and capable people to important positions, removed mediocre officials from office, punished treacherous courtiers and went out to battle by himself to destroy the State of Yong. Thus, the State of Chu took a turn from danger.

楚征服庸人以后，境内安宁，国力恢复，于是打算北上与晋争霸。楚庄王八年（公元前606年）春，庄王率军伐陆浑之戎（在今河南嵩山县及伊川县境内）。楚师在陆浑虚晃一枪，就开到伊水与洛水之间，在周都的南郊举行盛大的阅兵仪式。周天子胆战心惊，派大臣王孙满去慰劳庄王。庄王问王孙满：周天子的九鼎有多大？有多重？周天子的九鼎据传是夏禹所铸，代表天下九州，是王权的象征。庄王“问鼎中原”，不仅是对周王朝的轻蔑，而且还表示出一种取周而代之的意向。王孙满以“在德不在鼎”的道理劝退了楚军。

Having conquered the State of Yong, the State of Chu became peaceful and recovered its strength, so King Zhuang of Chu planned to go north to contend against the State of Jin for hegemony. In the spring of the eighth year of his reign (606 BCE), King Zhuang of Chu led his army to fight against the Rong tribes of Luhun (now Songshan and Yichuan Counties of Henan Province). After making a gesture of attacking at Luhun, the Chu army held a grand military parade between the Yishui River and the Luoshui River in the southern suburbs of the Zhou capital. The Emperor of Zhou was frightened and sent a minister named Wangsun Man to present gifts to King Zhuang of Chu. King Zhuang of Chu asked Wangsun Man, 'How big are the nine Ding tripods of the Emperor, and how much do they weigh?' It is said that Emperor Yu of Xia had cast the nine Ding tripods. They represented the nine states of the empire and were a symbol of imperial power. King Zhuang of Chu asked about the weight of Ding tripods on the Central Plains to show not only his contempt for the Zhou dynasty but also his intention to take place of it. Wangsun Man replied,' An empire thrives not by Ding tripods but by virtues.' He then persuaded King Zhuang of Chu to withdraw the army.

《遇见·楚庄王》 图/小火神全息剧场

外争霸权必须要有安定的国内局面。楚庄王平定若敖式之乱，解除了若敖式对王权的威胁，消除了楚国上层统治内部的不安定因素。启用孙叔敖等贤能人才，革旧创新，进行了一系列的改革，增强了楚国的综合国力，为楚击败晋国取得霸权创造了良好的条件。

To contend for hegemony, a state must be stable in itself. By putting down the Ruo'ao rebellion, King Zhuang of Chu saved his power from the threat of the Ruo'aofamily and eliminated destabilising factors within the ruling class of the State of Chu. He then put virtuous and capable people such as Sun Shu'ao in important positions and carried out a series of reforms. These efforts increased the comprehensive strength of Chuand made it possible to defeat Jin in the struggle for hegemony.

当时能与楚国争夺霸权的只有晋国，晋楚争夺中原，重点在争取郑、陈、宋为属国。晋楚属国之争，以争夺郑国最为激烈。晋楚邲之战发生在楚庄王十七年（公元前597年），邲在今河南郑州市东北。邲之战以楚胜晋败而告终。楚庄王从此称霸中原。

At that time, Jin was the only state capable of competing with Chu for hegemony. The competition for the Central Plains between the two states focused on some dependent states such as Zheng, Chen and Song. The Jin-Chustruggle for Zheng was the most intense. In the 17th year of his reign (597 BCE), King Zhuang of Chu commanded the battle of Bi (now northeast of Zhengzhou City, Henan Province) against Jin. Chu defeated Zheng in the battle of Bi, and King Zhuang of Chu began to dominate the Central Plains.

公元前591年，楚庄王去世。其子熊审10岁继位，称楚共王。楚共王二年（公元前589年），楚令尹子重在蜀地（今山东泰安县东南）举行盟会，楚及秦、宋、郑、蔡、许、卫、齐、鲁、曹、邾、薛、鄫等十四国国君或其代表参加，盛况空前，将楚霸业推向了顶峰。

In 591 BCE, King Zhuang of Chu died. His son Xiong Shen succeeded to the throne at 10 years old and became King Gong of Chu. Two years later, Lingyin Zizhong of Chu held an alliance meeting at Shu (now southeast of Tai'an County, Shandong Province). The sovereigns or deputies of 14 states (including Chu, Qin, Song, Zheng, Cai, Xu, Wei, Qi, Lu, Cao, Zhu, Yi, Xue and Ceng) attended the unprecedentedly grand occasion, pushing the hegemony of Chu to the climax.

楚惠王时，历史进入战国时期。楚、齐、燕、秦、韩、赵、魏七个最主要的国家，号称战国七雄。楚国在南、赵国在北、齐国在东、秦国在西、燕国在东北，韩、魏两国夹在齐楚秦赵之间。此时大国之间的争夺、兼并更加激烈。

In the reign of King Hui of Chu, China entered the Warring States Period. The seven most powerful states, namely Chu, Qi, Yan, Qin, Han, Zhao and Wei, were referred to as the Seven Powers in the Warring State Period. Chu was in the south; Zhao, the north; Qi, the east; Qin, the west; Yan, the northeast; and Han and Wei, the middle. By then, the competition and annexation among major powers had become more intense.

各诸侯国为了富国强兵，先后厉行变法。公元前401年，楚悼王即位，他任用吴起变法，并取得了成效，史书记载：楚国“兵震天下，威服诸侯”。

To make themselves rich and their military forces efficient, all states successively carried out reforms. In 401 BCE, King Dao of Chu succeeded to the throne. He appointed Wu Qi to lead reforms that proved fruitful. According to historical records, the Chu 'military strength was felt throughout China, and all other states submitted to its dominance.'

神人乘龙形玉佩极具楚文化特色 图/李冲 摄

公元前339年，楚威王继位。楚威王七年即公元前333年，楚国灭掉越国，尽取越人所占吴地。同年，楚军大败齐师于徐州。楚国成为东周第一大国。威王后期，楚国的版图西至川东，东至江浙，南至广西北部，北至河南南部，囊括长江中下游以及支流众多的淮水流域，是楚国最鼎盛的时期。

In 339 BCE, King Wei of Chu ascended to the throne. In the 7th year of his reign (333 BCE), Chu destroyed Yue and took all the land of Wu occupied by the Yue people. In the same year, the Chu army defeated the Qi army in Xuzhou and became the largest state in the Eastern Zhou dynasty. In the late reign of King Wei of Chu, the Chu territory had been expanded to eastern Sichuan in the west, Jiangsu and Zhejiang in the east, northwestern Guangxi in the south and southern Henan in the north. The state covered the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze as well as the basins of the Huaihe River and its tributaries and reached the height of prosperity.

七雄并立的局面，是在楚人击破越国后形成的。七雄之中，可以与楚国抗衡的只有秦国。

After Chu defeated Yue, seven powers existed side by side. Among the seven states, only Qin could compete with Chu.

公元前329年，楚怀王继位。在威王末年和怀王初年，楚国达到了强大和繁荣的顶点，但楚国由盛转衰也是从楚怀王开始的。

In 329 BCE, King Huai of Chu was enthroned. In the late reign of King Wei of Chu and the early reign of King Huai of Chu, the State of Chu reached the peak of strength and prosperity, but the state began to decline later in the reign of King Huai of Chu.

随着秦国势力的膨胀，各国都感受到了秦国的威胁，于是产生了以三晋为轴心的合纵连横运动。公元前318年，经苏秦游说，楚、韩、魏、赵、齐、燕六国合纵，楚怀王为纵长，率六国联军伐秦。尚未与秦交战，联军便纷纷引兵后退，六国合纵即告瓦解。公元前299年，楚怀王陷入秦昭襄王的骗局，被困于秦都咸阳。公元前296年，怀王客死秦国，楚国由极盛而顿衰。

As Qin expanded its power, all the other states felt its threat and attempted vertical and horizontal alliances with Sanjin (Han, Zhao and Wei) as a pivot. In 318 BCE, persuaded by Su Qin, Chu, Han, Wei, Zhao, Qi and Yan formed a vertical alliance, with King Huai of Chu as the chief. The six-power allied forces went on an expedition against Qin, but before the battle began, the allied forces retreated, the vertical alliance breaking down. In 299 BCE, King Huai of Chu was entrapped by King Zhaoxiang of Qin in Xianyang, the capital of Qin. In 296 BCE, King Huai of Chu died in Qin, and Chu declined abruptly from its zenith.

在楚怀王身陷秦国的时候，太子横继位，是为顷襄王，这是一位典型的庸主。公元前278年，秦将白起率军南下，攻占郢都，顷襄王逃至陈（今河南淮阳）。郢都被秦人攻克，夷陵被秦人焚毁，标志着楚文化鼎盛时期完结。

When King Huai of Chu was detained in Qin, Prince Heng took the throne and became King Qingxiang of Chu, a typical fatuous ruler. In 278 BCE, General Bai Qi led the Qi army to the south and captured Ying, the capital of Chu. King Qingxiang of Chu fled to Chen (now Huaiyang County, Henan Province). After capturing Ying, the Qin army burned Yiling, ending the heyday of Chu culture.

继顷襄王后的考烈王于公元前241年又迁都于寿春（今安徽寿县）。考烈王时楚国虽灭掉了鲁国，但并不能挽救楚国行将灭亡的命运。公元前224年，秦将王翦率60万大军攻楚。公元前223年秦军攻陷寿郢，席卷淮南，俘获楚王负刍。楚国就此灭亡。

In 241 BCE, after King Qingxiang of Chu, King Kaolie of Chu moved the capital to Shouchun (now Shou County, Anhui Province). King Kaolie of Chu destroyed the State of Lu, but that could not save Chu from destruction. In 224 BCE, General Wang Jian of Qin led 600,000 troops to attack Chu. In 223 BCE, the Qin army captured Shouying and swept through the south of the Huaihe River. King Fuchu of Chu was taken captive, and that was the demise of Chu.

图/湖北省博物馆社教部

西周晚期。1966年湖北京山苏家垅出土。通高66厘米，宽23.8厘米。青铜壶是商周礼器的主要器物之一，在湖北省内出土了不少西周晚期以后的青铜壶，这件曾仲斿父壶尤为重要。此墓同时出土有“曾侯仲子斿父”铭文鼎，是一位名叫“斿父”的曾侯之物。此壶为方形，造型庄重雄伟。盖顶为藀瓣状，腹部有两个兽形耳，耳衔环，有流畅的纹饰，器盖内与壶口内均铸“曾仲斿父”字样的铭文，1971年该壶曾运往北京展出，郭沫若先生非常重视，亲自为其铭文释文。它是研究古代曾国的重要器物，是著名西周青铜器之一。

This pot dates back to the late Western Zhou dynasty. It was unearthed in 1966 from the Sujialongsite in Jingshan County, Hubei Province. It is 66 centimetres tall and 23.8 centimetres wide. Bronze pots were important ritual vessels in the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Many bronze pots of the late Western Zhou dynasty have been unearthed in Hubei Province, and this pot is especially important. A Ding tripod with the inscription of 'Marquis Zhong Youfu of Zeng' was unearthed together with this pot, so it belonged to a marquis of Zeng whose name was Youfu. This pot is square and majestically shaped. The top of its lid resembles the cloves of a blade of grass. On its belly are two animal-shaped handles to which rings are attached, and the rings are decorated with smooth patterns. The inscription of 'Zhong Youfu of Zeng' can be seen inside both the lid and the mouth. In 1971, this pot was transported to Beijing to be exhibited. Mr Guo Moruo was very interested in it and personally explained the inscription. It is an important artefact for studying the ancient State of Zeng and is one of the most famous bronze objects of the Western Zhou dynasty.

图/湖北省博物馆社教部

春秋。2013年征集。通高39.5厘米，器口径 31.5厘米，耳距40厘米。器形附耳，折沿，束颈，三蹄足，盖顶微弧，正中有平环握手；盖及上腹饰蟠虺纹带，腹中部有凸起绹纹一周，其下饰倒垂三角形回纹，铭文铸在内底，5行28字：唯王正月初吉丁亥，楚王賸（媵）隓（随）仲嬭加飤（食）緐（繁）。其眉寿无期，子孙永宝用之。这件器物是楚王与随国（曾国）联姻时的陪嫁品。

This Dingtripod dates back to the Spring and Autumn Period and was collected in 2013. It is 39.5 centimetres tall, its mouth 31.5 centimetres in diameter and its ears 40 centimetres apart. It has two side handles, a folded rim, a contracted neck and three hoof-shaped feet. The lid is slightly curved at the top, with a flat circular handle in the middle. Both the lid and the upper belly are decorated with a band of Pan Huipatterns. The middle part of the belly is decorated with raised rope patterns, and the lower part of the belly, inverted triangular fretwork patterns. The inscription, cast at the inner bottom, includes 5 lines and 28 characters:' On the day of Ding Hai of the first month, the King of Chu gave this Shifan Ding tripod to Zhong Mijia as part of a dowry when she was married to the State of Sui(Zeng). She will enjoy longevity, and this tripod shall be cherished forever by her descendents.' The inscription shows that Chu and Sui (Zeng) were repeatedly united by marriage.

春秋晚期。江陵长湖出土。短内，援狭长上扬，中脊凸起，胡上三穿。错金鸟篆铭文“楚王孙渔之用”六字，三字在胡部，三字在援部。文字工整秀挺，具有很高的艺术研究价值。这件楚王孙渔戟与现藏于中国国家博物馆的一件为一组双戈戟。

This halberd dates back to the late Spring and Autumn Period. It was unearthed by ChanghuLake in Jiangling County. It has a short shaft. Its narrow and long head tilts upward, with a raised ridge. The neck has three holes. The gold-inlaid inscription in seal script reads, 'To be used by King Sun Yu of Chu.'Three characters of the inscription are on the neck, and three other characters are on the head. All the characters, neat and graceful, are of high value for artistic studies. This halberd and another halberd now collected by the National Museum of China can be combined into one halberdwith double dagger-axes.

越王勾践剑 图/湖北省博物馆藏

越王勾践（公元前497—前465年）和吴王夫差（公元前495—前473年），是我国春秋战国时期长江下游吴、越两国的国君，也是人们非常熟悉的历史人物。

King Goujian of Yue (497–465 BCE) and King Fuchai of Wu (495–473 BCE) were monarchs of Wu and Yue in the lower reaches of the Yangtze in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and they are also familiar historical figures among the public.

春秋战国时期，处于长江下游的吴、越两国曾进行了长期激烈的战争。吴国建都于今日的江苏省苏州，越国建都于今日的浙江省绍兴。公元前496年，吴越开战，吴军战败，吴王阖闾负伤而死。公元前494年，其子夫差替父报仇，率兵攻打越国大获全胜，越王勾践沦为阶下囚，在吴国扣押了三年。越王勾践在忍受了三年的屈辱生活之后，回到越国，在大臣范蠡、文仲的辅佐下卧薪尝胆，励志图强，用艰苦的生活磨练自己的意志。经过十年生聚、十年教训，终于使得越国由弱转强。公元前473年越王勾践率兵攻打吴国，迫使吴王夫差引剑自刎，从而成就了越国霸业。

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Wu and Yue, two states in the lower reaches of the Yangtze, fought a long and fierce war against each other. The capital of Wu was in today's Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, and the capital of Yue was in today's Shaoxing City, Zhejiang Province. In 496 BCE, Wu and Yue were engaged in a battle. The Wu army was defeated, and King Helu of Wu died from a wound. In 494 BCE, King Fuchai of Wu, son of Helu, led troops to attack Yue. He gained a complete victory and avenged his father. King Goujian of Yue was captured and detained in Wu for three years. After all the humiliation, Goujian returned to Yue. With the support of his ministers Fan Li and Wen Zhong, Goujian underwent self-imposed hardships to temper his will and make the country prosperous. After ten years of development and accumulation, Yue finally turned from being weak to being very strong. In 473 BCE, King Goujian of Yue led his troops to attack Wu. He forced King Fuchai of Wu to commit suicide with a sword, thus achieving the hegemony.

越王勾践剑 图/武汉东湖

1965年在湖北江陵望山1号楚墓出土了一柄越王勾践的青铜剑，是与这位历史人物有关的第一件文物。出土时，剑插于黑色漆木剑鞘里，剑与鞘吻合很好。在剑身近格处有两行八字的鸟篆铭文：“越王鸠浅自作用剑”。说明它是越王勾践的自用青铜剑。这把剑全长55.6厘米，剑首向外翻卷作圆箍形，内铸有极其精细的11道同心圆。剑格宽5厘米，正面用蓝色琉璃、背面用绿松石镶嵌成美丽的纹饰。剑身长47.3厘米，满饰黑色菱形几何花纹。虽深埋于地下2400多年，出鞘时剑身仍寒光闪闪，毫无锈蚀，刃薄锋利。

In 1965, a bronze sword of King Goujian of Yue was unearthed from Chu tomb No1 at Wangshan Hill in Jiangling County, Hubei Province. It is the first cultural relic related to this historical figure ever discovered. When it was unearthed, the sword was securely inserted in a black lacquered scabbard. Near the hilt on the sword body, the inscription consisting of two lines and eight characters reads,' A sword made for and used by King Gou Jian of Yue.' The sword is 55.6 centimetres long. Its head is turned outwards into a hoop, inside which are cast 11 extremely fine concentric circles. The hilt is 5 centimetres wide, and is embedded on one side with a blue glaze and on the other turquoise in beautiful patterns. Its body is 47.3 centimetres long and is decorated with black diamond-shaped patterns. Although the sword had been buried under the earth for more than 2,400 years, it was shiny and sharp when unsheathed, with no rust at all.

图/湖北省博物馆

迄今为止，越王剑先后出土20余件，但越王勾践剑的工艺之精美，则首屈一指，无与伦比。经现代仪器分析测定，勾践剑为青铜铸造，其主要成分为铜、锡、铅、铁和硫等，其剑脊部分含铜量高，使剑具有较大的韧性，不易折断；刃部含锡量高，使剑具有较大的硬度，更为锋利。越王勾践剑集当时各种先进的青铜冶炼技术于一体，代表了当时吴越铸剑技术的最高水平，刚柔相济，既坚韧又锋利的特性使越王勾践剑成为不可多得的国宝级文物。

To date, more than 20 swords of Kings of Yue have been unearthed, but the Sword of King Goujian of Yue has by far the most exquisite craftsmanship. As analysed with modern instruments, this sword is made of bronze, and its components are mainly copper, tin, lead, iron and sulphur. Its ridge is high in copper, making it very tough and hard to break. Its blade is high in tin, giving it great hardness and sharpness. The Sword of King Goujian of Yue integrates all advanced bronze smelting techniques at that time and represents the highest level of sword casting technology in Wu and Yue. Combining rigidity and flexibility along with toughness and sharpness, the Sword of King Goujian of Yue is a rare national treasure.

图/湖北省博物馆

越国国君的青铜剑为什么会出现在楚国墓葬中？这个涉及楚越关系的问题，曾引起国内外学者关注，目前有多种说法：一是认为是越国嫁女到楚国的陪嫁品，因为文献记载勾践的女儿嫁给了楚昭王。二是认为是战争、交流所致。

Why was the bronze sword of a king of Yue unearthed from a Chu tomb? This question involves the relationship between Chu and Yue, and scholars at home and abroad have proposed many different theories. Some of them, based on historical records, suggested that it was part of a dowry for Goujian's daughter who was married to King Zhao of Chu. Others argued that such a phenomenon had been caused by war and exchange.

1983年，在距越王勾践剑出土地约2公里的江陵马山砖瓦场5号楚墓里发现了一件吴王夫差的青铜矛状兵器。全长29.5厘米，形制较为特殊，矛身中空（出土时尚有残断的“积竹”柲），而剖面为菱形，矛身的中脊呈三棱形，脊上有血槽，矛身的刺与锋都非常锋利，矛身满饰黑色的菱形几何纹饰，近筩处有错金铭文 “吴王夫差自作用鈼”。筩部为椭圆形，正背两面各有一刻纹精细的兽纹鼻；它的銎也是椭圆形，长径4.5厘米，短径2.2厘米。虽然出土时略有些锈蚀，但原来的铸造工艺精良，花纹美观，至今仍十分锋利，是一件不可多得的吴国兵器珍品。

In 1983, about two kilometres from where the sword of King Goujian of Yue was discovered, a spear-like bronze weapon of King Fuchai of Wu was unearthed from Chu tomb No 5 at Mashan Brickyard in Jiangling County. It is 29.5 centimetres long and is uniquely shaped. The spear is hollow (with residues of a broken bamboo handle inside when unearthed). It has a diamond-shaped profile. Its middle ridge is prismatoidal with a blood groove. Both the end and the blades are very sharp. Its body is fully covered with black diamond-shaped patterns. The gold-inlaid inscription near the sleeve reads, 'A spear made for and used by King Fuchai of Wu.' The sleeve is oval and is finely carved with an animal-shaped nose on each side; the handle hole is also oval, with a long diameter of 4.5 centimetres and a short diameter of 2.2 centimetres. It was slightly rusted when unearthed, but it is still sharp, with exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful patterns. This weapon of Wu is a rare treasure.

吴王夫差矛 湖北省博物馆藏 图/湖北文物

吴王夫差矛为什么也是发现于江陵楚墓呢？据史书记载，从吴王寿梦二年（公元前584年）开始，吴楚之间经常相互攻打，各有胜负。吴王阖闾九年（公元前506年）率兵攻入楚郢都，楚昭王奔随。吴王夫差即位之后仅于公元前476年吴楚发生过一次战争，之后三年吴即被越所灭。吴王夫差的青铜矛出土于江陵楚墓，虽然有可能是吴楚这次战争的战利品，但这座楚墓的年代为战国中期，因而它更有可能是越国灭吴国的战利品，后来再由越馈赠于楚或楚灭越的战利品。

How come the spear of King Fuchai of Wu was also unearthed for a Chu tomb in Jiangling County? According to historical records, starting in the second year of the reign of King Shoumeng of Wu (584 BCE), Wu and Chu were often engaged in war against each other, with victories and defeats on both sides. In the ninth year of his reign (506 BCE), King Helu of Wu led troops to capture Ying, the capital of Chu, and King Zhao of Chu fled to Sui (Zeng). After King Fuchai of Wusucceeded to the throne, there was only one battle between Wu and Chu in 476 BCE before Wu was eliminated by Yue three years later. The bronze spear unearthed in the Chu tomb in Jiangling County could be a trophy of Chu from this battle, but the Chu tomb was built in the middle of the Warring States Period, so it is more likely to be a trophy of Yue when Goujian eliminated Wu. Yue could have given the spear to Chu as a gift, or Chu could have taken it from Yue as a trophy when destroying Yue.

青铜器是先秦时期权力和财富的象征，铜矿是先秦时期各国谋求的主要战略资源。

In the pre-Qin period, bronze objects symbolised power and wealth, and copper mines were strategic resources sought after by all the states.

铜绿山古铜矿遗址 图/湖北文物

铜绿山位于湖北大冶城区西南3公里，为铜铁共生矿，伴生金、银、钴等多种金属。在2平方千米范围内分布着13个矿体，有的矿体上层铜矿氧化程度高、埋藏浅；有的矿体出露地表，易于发现和开采；铜储量居全国第二，品位居全国之首。

Tonglushan is located three kilometres southwest of Daye City, Hubei Province. It is a copper-iron paragenic mine, with associated minerals such as gold, silver and cobalt. A total of 13 ore bodies are distributed in an area of two square kilometres. The copper mineral in the upper layer of some ore bodies is highly oxidised and shallowly buried. Some ore bodies are exposed and easy to spot and mine. The copper here ranks second in terms of reserves and first in terms of grade in the country.

1973年铜绿山古矿冶遗址在现代采矿中被发现。在此后43年里，考古工作者先后进行了两轮发掘，所获资料表明铜绿山古铜矿遗址是目前世界上采冶持续时间最长、规模最大、文化内涵最丰富、采冶水平最高的古矿冶遗存。楚国于春秋早期晚段扩张经略铜绿山后，采冶技术不断创新，其采冶技艺具当时世界领先水平。

In 1973, the Tonglushan ancient copper mining and smelting site was discovered in modern mining. In the 43 years that followed, archaeologists carried out two rounds of excavations. The data obtained showed that the Tonglushan ancient copper mine was exploited for the longest time, was the largest scale, had the most profound cultural connotation and boasted the most advanced technology among all ancient copper mines in the world. In the late years of the early Spring and Autumn Period, when the State of Chu, in its expansion, took over the management of Tonglushan, it innovatively developed the copper mining and smelting technology to the world's top level at the time.

6号炼铜竖炉 图/武汉市文化和旅游局

首次在铜绿山矿区的5个矿体暴露的6处采矿遗址和2处冶铜遗址上，揭露商周至汉唐时期的采矿竖（盲）井231个、平（斜）巷100多条，冶铜炉12座；在5个矿体上发现了7处古代露天采场，10个矿体发现地下采区共18个；古代地下采矿井巷如同密集的蜘蛛网，总长度约8000米，挖掘出矿料和土石达100万立方米，遗留的铜矿石达3—4万吨（铜品位为12%—20%）。矿区分布的冶炼遗址50处，冶铜的炉渣达40万吨。如此规模，在人类古矿业史上是罕见的！

In the first round of excavations of the Tonglushan ancient copper mine, archaeologists discovered six mining sites and two smelting sites on five exposed ore bodies, where there are 231 vertical (blind) shafts, some 100 level (inclined) drifts and 12 copper furnaces that date from the Shang and Zhou dynasties to the Han and Tang dynasties. Archaeologists also identified 7 open pits on 5 ore bodies and 18 underground working areas on 10 ore bodies. The ancient underground mining wells are as dense as spider webs and extend for about 8,000 metres. The excavated ores, earth and stone amounted to one million cubic metres, and the remaining copper ores weigh 30,000 to 40,000 tonnes (with a grade of 12% to 20%). In the mining area are scattered 50 smelting sites and 400,000 tonnes of copper slags. Such a scale is a rare find in the history of ancient human mining!

铜绿山古铜矿遗址 图/武汉市文化和旅游局

铜绿山早期为露天开采，商周时期变革为地下井巷开采，这是人类采矿技术的第一次伟大的飞跃，反映古人较好地解决了地下追踪矿脉、井巷支护、通风、排水、照明、提升等一系列复杂的技术难题。巷道中发现木质“船形木斗”，是古人采用“重力选矿”的原理来鉴定矿石中含铜量多寡，进而决定采掘方向的工具。

At the early stage, strip mining was adopted at Tonglushan. In the Shang and Zhou dynasties, Tonglushan shifted to mining by underground wells and drifts. It was the first great leap in human mining technology, reflecting that the ancients had solved a series of complex technical problems, such as the tracking of underground lodes, shaft and drift supporting, ventilation, drainage, lighting and lifting. The 'boat-shaped wooden bucket' discovered in adrift was a tool to identify the copper content in the ores using the principle of 'gravity concentration' before determining the direction of mining.

采掘技术从简单到复杂，有矿就采无矿即停的灵活探采方法，形成了地面（露天采场底）→群井（斜井）→平（斜）巷→盲（竖、斜）井→平巷（采场）的采矿进程。采矿和安全形影相随，对竖（盲）井和平（斜）巷的安全支护技术不断创新，春秋以前井巷采用榫卯结构的木方框支护，井壁与方框之间分别衬以细棍、木板和竹席，使竖井支护牢固、矿工上下方便和空气流通，采矿井巷深达60米；竖井与平巷衔接处采用“马头门”结构连接互通。战国以后竖井截面大，采用“密集法搭口式”先进支护技术，宽高的平巷则采用叉立柱式搭接，构成一条条完整的棚子，采掘深度近百米，采掘技术为向上式，废石料直接回填到井底。

The ancients were flexible in copper mining. They used simple mining techniques when possible and complex ones when necessary. They kept mining when there were plenty of ores and stopped mining when there were no more. Therefore, the mining process went through a series of stages, namely ground (strip mining), group shafts (inclined shafts), level (inclined) drifts, blind (vertical/inclined) shafts, and level drifts (stopes). Mining and safety developed hand in hand. Vertical (blind) shafts and level (inclined) drifts were innovatively and securely supported. Before the Spring and Autumn Period, shafts and drifts were supported with wooden frames of mortise and tenon joint structures. The gaps between shaft walls and frames were filled with small sticks, wooden boards and bamboo mats so that the vertical shafts were securely supported and well ventilated and the miners could conveniently go up and down. The mining shafts and drifts were up to 60 metres deep; vertical shafts and level drifts were connected by 'horsehead' structures. After the Warring States Period, the vertical shafts had bigger cross-sections and were supported with advanced 'dense lapping connection' technology. The wide and tall level drifts were connected with forked columns to form rows upon rows of sheds. The mining depth was nearly 100 metres, and the mining went from bottom to top so that the lower shafts could be directly back filled with waste stones.

巷道内排水系统先进，用整树掏挖成木槽，沿巷道边缘搭接成较长斜向排水沟，可将丰富的渗水经木槽汇入储水坑，然后将渗水提升到地面排放；水槽穿过作业巷道地段时，其上加盖薄板或木棍形成暗沟，达到不影响生产和水流畅通的目的。

The drifts had an advanced drainage system. Logs were cut into troughs, which were connected to form a long and sloping ditch along the drifts. The excess seeping water flew through the troughs into a water pit, and then it was lifted to the ground for drainage. Where the troughs passed through a working drift, they were covered with thin planks or sticks so that the troughs would not affect production and the seeping water could flow smoothly.

地下通风较为科学，古人将群井开凿于矿体表面斜坡上，井口高低不同所产生的气压会将地面空气导入井巷工作面；若遇到气压低的天气，古人便在部分井底燃烧成束的竹签，使井巷内废气加热膨胀后腾升出地面，新鲜冷气顺着竖井进入井巷循环。

The underground ventilation was quite effective. The ancients dug group drifts on the slopes of ore bodies. The air pressure that was generated by the height difference between the drift mouths brought the air from the ground to the working face. On days of low air pressure, the ancients would burn bundles of bamboo sticks at the drift bottom. When the heated and expanded waste air in the drifts rose out of the ground, the fresh cold air would enter the drifts through vertical shafts to achieve ventilation.

照明用具主要是竹签、竹灯筒、陶豆和油脂。井下矿石和渗水等提升到地面，经历了从一段提升到分段或综合提升的变革，提升工具中发明了木辘轳，这是我国早期机械的重要实物。出土木辘轳轴全长250厘米，轴身两头各有两排插入木条的方孔。复原表明，木条成为转动辘轳的手柄，采用木辘轳提升既省力又提高了效率，还可起到 “制动闸”的作用。

For lighting, the ancients mainly relied on bamboo sticks, bamboo torches, pottery lamps and greases. To lift ores and seeping water to the ground, people first used the single-stage lifting method and then shifted to the multi-stage or integrated lifting method. The wooden windlass, which was invented as a lifting tool, is an important piece of evidence regarding China's early machinery. The unearthed wooden windlass has a 250-centimetre-long axle. On each end of the axle are two rows of square holes where wooden strips could go in. After restoration, the wooden strips become the handle to turn the windlass, which is both labour-saving and efficient, not to mention handy as a 'brake' as well.

春秋采矿铜斧 图/湖北文物

井下和冶炼场出土了成系列的矿冶工具，材质分为铜、铁、木、石。其中探矿和选矿工具有船形木斗、木杵、木臼、木水槽；采掘工具有铜斧、铜锛、铜凿、铁斧、铁锤、铁钻、铁耙等；铲装工具有铜铲、木铲、木锹、木撮瓢；排水工具有木瓢、木桶；装运工具有竹篓、竹筐、竹箢箕；提升工具有木辘轳、木钩、麻绳；碎矿工具有石锤、石砧等。一件铜斧重达16.3公斤，为中国古代最重的铜质采矿工具。

A series of mining and metallurgical tools have been unearthed from under the shafts and the smelting fields. These tools are made of copper, iron, wood or stone. Among them, the prospecting and ore dressing tools include wooden boat-shaped buckets, pestles, mortars and troughs; mining tools include bronze axes, adzes and chisels, iron axes, hammers, drills and rakes; shovelling and loading tools include copper shovels and wooden shovels, spades and dippers; draining tools include wooden ladles and barrels; transporting tools include bamboo baskets, crates and pans; lifting tools include wooden windlasses and hooks and hemp ropes; crushing tools include stone hammers and anvils. A bronze axe weighs 16.3 kilograms and is the heaviest discovered copper mining tool of ancient China.

大冶铜绿山遗址揭露出东周至汉代的炼铜鼓风竖炉14座，推测遗存的炉渣约40万吨左右，冶炼出粗铜15万吨以上。模拟实验证明，土筑鼓风竖炉已具备了连续加料、连续排渣和间接放铜的功能，这是古代冶金技艺的一次伟大发明。炉渣中平均含铜量为0.7%、含铁量在30%～50%，冶炼出的粗铜含铜纯度在91.86%～93.99%之间。炉渣数据说明矿石中的铜得到充分还原，达到现代冶铜排渣水平，反映了楚国冶铜技术走在古代世界前列。

At the Tonglushan ancient copper mine in Daye, archaeologists unearthed 14 vertical copper blast furnaces that date from the Eastern Zhou dynasty to the Han dynasty. It is estimated that the residual slags amount to about 400,000 tonnes, and the smelted blister copper amounts to more than 150,000 tonnes. Simulation tests have proved that the earthen blast furnace could provide functions of continuous feeding, continuous slagging and indirect copper drawing. It was a great invention in ancient metallurgy. The slags had an average copper content of 0.7% and an iron content of 30– 50%. The purity of blister copper is between 91.86% and 93.99%. The slag data indicate that the copper in the ores was fully reduced, and the level of copper smelting and slagging reached modern levels. Therefore, Chu led the ancient world in copper smelting.

2014年以来，在四方塘遗址墓葬区发掘两周时期与矿冶生产密切相关的墓葬246座，岩阴山脚遗址还发现了35枚人类赤足印，这在中国矿冶遗址中又是最为重要的一次考古发现，填补矿冶遗址“见物不见人”的空白。墓葬的规模和规格、葬俗及随葬品，为解开矿冶生产组织者的身份和地位、楚文化与扬越文化关系等系列谜团提供了实例。

Since 2014, 246 tombs closely related to mining and metallurgy in the Western and Eastern Zhou dynasties have been excavated from the burial area at the Sifangtang site. At the Yanyinshanjiao site, 35 human footprints have also been discovered. It was another important archaeological discovery in Chinese mining and smelting ruins,  because evidence of human activities was discovered in such ruins for the first time. The sizes and forms of these tombs, burial customs and funerary objects have provided reliable information for solving a series of mysteries, such as the identities and statuses of mining and smelting production organisers and the relationship between the Chu and the Yang-Yue cultures.

大冶铜绿山古铜矿遗址博物馆新馆 图/湖北文物

铜绿山古矿遗址向世人展示了人类矿冶文明的辉煌进程，丰富的铜矿资源不仅成为楚国强大争霸的重要物质基础，楚墓出土大量精美的青铜器足以说明精湛的铸铜技艺已登上了世界青铜文化的顶峰。

The Tonglushan ancient copper mine has shown the world the glorious process of human mining and smelting civilisation. The abundant copper resources not only became an important material basis for Chu's powerful hegemony, but the numerous exquisite bronze objects unearthed from the Chu tomb sare solid evidence that the superb copper casting skills of Chu had reached the peak of the world's bronze culture.

先秦时期，“国之大事，在祀与戎”。在青铜时代，一个国家最重要的事情就是祭祀和战争,而这两件国家大事都离不开青铜，用于仪式和战争的青铜器则是礼制的体现和国力的象征。楚之礼乐与中原一脉相承，又融入了楚人独特的生活风尚和审美趣味。礼乐之器既有中原之凝重、典雅、简朴，又有楚之活泼、灵动、华丽，浪漫与理性交织，华夏与蛮夷风格混融，从造型到纹饰到组合方式，无不昭示着楚的风范和气度。

In the pre-Qin period, 'Sacrifices and wars were the most important things for a state.' In the Bronze Age, the bronze objects that were inseparable from these two sorts of events reflected the ritual system and the strength of a state. The rituals and music of Chu were more or less the same as those on the Central Plains, but they were also integrated with the unique lifestyle and aesthetic taste of Chu people. The Chu ritual vessels and musical instruments are not only as dignified, graceful and unadorned as those on the Central Plains, but also uniquely lively, vivacious and gorgeous. They combine romance and rationality and blend Central Plains civilisation with barbarian style, and they highlight the gracefulness and temperament of Chu in terms of shape, decoration and combination.

在宗法制度下，贵族在仪式中要按照身份等级使用礼器，器物的形制、大小、组合关系都与其身份相关。食器往往与酒器构成礼器组合，组合方式也因时代变迁而有所不同。尽管在礼器组合形式上，楚国与中原地区存在差异，但礼乐体制“明尊卑，别上下”的根本原则仍然一致。

Under the patriarchal system, aristocrats used different ritual vessels according to their statuses. The shapes, sizes and combination of ritual vessels must match their identities. Food vessels and wine vessels often formed different ritual combinations depending on the times. Chu and the Central Plains had different ritual combinations, but both of them observed certain ritual and music systems to 'maintain the social hierarchy'.

战国。1987年湖北荆门包山2号墓出土。高42厘米，口径53厘米；鼎钩通长28.9厘米。为食器。造型敛口，折沿，方唇，颈微束，方形附耳，浅腹平底，三蹄足外撇。颈及上腹部饰变形云纹及凸带纹。鼎在祭祀、宴飨中用于烹煮牲肉，包山2号墓遣策中有“豕”“牛”各一件，分别用于烹煮猪与牛。

This Ding tripod dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 1987 from Baoshan M2 in Jinmen City, Hubei Province. It is 42 centimetres tall, and its mouth is 53 centimetres in diameter. This Ding tripod has a pair of hooks 28.9 centimetres long and is used for cooking food. It has a contracted mouth, a folded edge, a square lip, a slightly contracted neck, two square side handles, a shallow belly, a flat bottom and three hoof-shaped feet that tilt outward. The neck and the upper belly are decorated with variant cloud patterns and convex belt patterns. It was used to cook sacrificial meat at rituals and banquets. The list of funerary objects unearthed from Baoshan M2 included a swine Ding tripod and a bull Ding tripod, which were used to cook swine and cattle, respectively.

战国。1987年湖北荆门包山2号墓出土。高75.2厘米，口径63.4厘米。

This Ding tripod dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 1987 from Baoshan M2 in Jinmen City, Hubei Province. It is 75.2 centimetres tall, and its mouth is 63.4 centimetres in diameter.

春秋晚期。1972年湖北襄阳山湾出土。高21.5厘米，口径30厘米。簠是盛粱、稻的容器。器盖和器身内底各有铭文4行24字，记录此鼎为楚国一位氏“子季”，名“嬴青”的贵族为自己制作的一件铜器。据考证“子季”应是楚王族的一支。

This Fureceptacle dates back to the late Spring and Autumn Period. It was unearthed in 1972 from the Shanwan site in Xiangyang City, Hubei Province. It is 21.5 centimetres tall and has a mouth diameter of 30 centimetres. It was used as a receptacle of rice and millet. Its lid and inner bottom are inscribed with 24 characters in four lines. According to the inscription, a Chu aristocrat named Ziji Yingqing made this bronze object for himself. Studies show that the Ziji family was probably a branch of the Chu royal family.

图/湖北省博物馆社教部

春秋晚期。1975年湖北随州鲢鱼嘴出土。长27.7厘米，宽20.7厘米。盖内有铭文6行31字，记录了这件青铜器是楚国一位姓屈，名字叫“赤角”的贵族为其二女儿“芈璜”出嫁而特意铸造的，也就是陪嫁品。

This Fureceptacle dates back to the late Spring and Autumn Period. It was unearthed in 1975 from the Lianyuzui site in Suizhou City, Hubei Province. It is 27.7 centimetres long and 20.7 centimetres wide. The inner side of the lid is inscribed with 31 characters in six lines. According to the inscription, this bronze object was specially made by a Chu aristocrat named Qu Chijiao as a piece of dowry for his second daughter Mihuang.

战国。1987年湖北荆门包山2号墓出土。高50.2厘米，口径24.5厘米，耳距62.5厘米。酒器。盖弧形，顶部内凹，上有四个环钮。敛口，斜肩，上腹鼓出，底微凹，矮圈足。肩部有对称铺首衔环。腹部有一周凸弦纹。缶是较有楚国特色的青铜器，仅见于等级较高的楚墓之中，大夫以下的墓葬中则用仿铜陶缶替代。包山2号墓的遣策有“卵缶”“迅缶”的记载。

This wine vessel dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 1987 from Baoshan M2 in Jinmen City, Hubei Province. It is 50.2 centimetres tall, with its mouth 24.5 centimetres in diameter and its ears 62.5 centimetres apart. The lid is curved, with a groove at the top and four ring handles. It has acontracted mouth and slanted shoulders. The upper belly is bulged; the bottom is slightly concave; and the ring foot is short. On its shoulders are two symmetrical animal head rings. The belly is decorated with a circle of convex bowstring patterns. Bronze Fou pots were unique to Chu. They were only discovered in high-grade Chu tombs. In tombs of officials below the level of Dafu, imitation-bronzeFou pots made of clay were used instead. The list of funerary objects in Baoshan M2 records a Nuan Fou pot and a Xun Fou pot.

图/湖北省博物馆社教部

春秋。1969年枝江百里洲出土。高20.3厘米，宽14.5厘米。水器，形状大口长流，流口上部封闭，呈兽首形，并有象鼻纹一道，四个兽形扁足，龙形鋬。鋬饰重环纹，口下饰蟠蛇纹，腹饰瓦纹。内底有5行29字铭文:惟正月初吉庚午，塞公孙（爿言）父自作盥匜，其眉寿无疆，子子孙孙永宝用之。器主为被封于塞地楚国公孙。

This water vessel dates back to the Spring and Autumn Period. It was unearthed in 1969 from Bailizhou of Zhijiang City. It is 20.3 centimetres tall and 14.5 centimetres wide. It has a broad mouth and a long spout. The upper part of the spout is enclosed. The Yieweris shaped like an animal and has four elephant trunk patterns. It has four flat animal-shaped feet and a dragon-shaped handle. The handle is decorated with multi-ring patterns. The part below the mouth is decorated with serpentine patterns, and the belly is decorated with tile patterns. The inner bottom is inscribed with 29 characters in five lines: 'On the day of Gengwu of the first lunar month, Gongsun Yifu of Sai made this Yi as a bathing pot for himself. He will enjoy longevity, and this Yiewer shall be cherished forever by his descendents. 'Its owner was therefore Gongsun Yifu, who was conferred Sai of Chu.

先秦贵族墓葬一般都随葬乐器，它们是礼器的组成部分，象征身份等级。其中以青铜编钟和石编磬最为重要，它们的大小、数量多少和排列方式都象征主人身份。

In the pre-Qin period, musical instruments were usually used as funerary objects for aristocrats. Like other ritual vessels, the musical instruments were also a symbol of status. Among them, bronze chime bells and chime stones were the most important. Their sizes, quantities and arrangements reflect the status of the owners.

曾侯乙编钟 图/湖北省博物馆

楚国是一个充满乐舞旋律的国度，金声玉振，钟鼓齐鸣是楚国歌舞宴乐场景的真实写照。楚人十分爱好音乐，既有众人相和的《下里》《巴人》，也有曲高和寡的《阳春》《白雪》，音乐、舞蹈都具有很高的水平。楚墓出土的青铜乐器主要有钟、铙、钲等，配以石（磬）、革（鼓）、丝（琴、瑟）、匏（笙）、竹（箫）等，恰与《楚辞》中“扬枹兮拊鼓”“陈竽瑟兮浩倡”“陈钟按鼓，造新歌些”的情景相印证。

Chu was a state full of music and dances. At banquets and celebrations, various musical instruments produced resounding and harmonious music, and dances were also performed. Chu people attained great height in music and dance. The Chu music included both popular genres such as XiaLi and BaRen and refined genres such as YangChun and BaiXue. The bronze musical instruments unearthed from Chu tombs mainly included bells (without handles), cymbals and Zheng bells (with handles) and stone (chime stones), leather (drums), plucked (Qin and Sezither) and wind (Sheng reed pipe and Xiao recorder) instruments. Many of these instruments were mentioned in Chu Ci ('Songs of Chu').

图/武汉东湖

战国。2002年出土于湖北枣阳市九连墩。虎座凤架鼓是战国时期楚国的乐器，也是楚墓中出土的最为典型的文物。主体由双虎、双凤、扁鼓组成。两只昂首卷尾、四肢屈伏、背向而踞的卧虎为底座，虎背上各立一只长腿、昂首、背向而立的凤鸟，中间的扁鼓悬于凤冠之上。均为楠木雕刻，木胎上髹生漆，绘有凤、虎以及其他装饰图案。虎斑凤羽和装饰花纹以红、黄、黑三色为主，绘画线条流畅，形象逼真。

This drum dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 2002 from the Jiuliandun site in Zaoyang City, Hubei Province. It is a Chu musical instrument and the most typical artefact unearthed from Chu-era tombs. Its main body consists of two tigers, two phoenixes and a flat drum. The two tigers, squatting back to back with upward-facing heads, coiled tails and bent legs, act as the pedestal. On the back of each tiger stands a phoenix with long legs. The phoenixes hold their heads high and face opposite directions. The flat drum in the middle is suspended between the phoenix crests. The artefact is carved with a piece of nanmu. The wooden core is lacquered and painted with phoenix, tiger and other decorative patterns. The phoenix feathers with tiger spots and other decorative patterns are mainly red, yellow and black. The lines are smooth, and the images are lifelike.

作为春秋五霸之一和战国七雄之一的楚国，不仅拥有最先进的武器，而且拥有庞大的武器库。史籍有“带甲百万，车千乘，骑万匹”的说法。楚国的兵器，数量巨大，种类繁多。

Chu was one of the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn Period as well as one of the Seven Powers of the Warring States Period. It not only boasted the most advanced weapons, but also had a huge arsenal. According to historical records, Chu had 'a million armoured warriors, one thousand chariots and ten thousand horses'. The weapons of Chu were numerous and varied.

越王勾践剑 图/湖北文物

春秋晚期以前，青铜剑一般只出在贵族墓中，剑的形制也很短小，是防身的佩剑。从春秋晚期至战国中晚期，墓葬中出土剑的数量骤增，青铜剑已不再是少数贵族的专用品，而是作为士兵打战时的武器了。在形制方面剑身加长，战国中晚期的剑一般要比春秋中晚期的剑长20厘米—30厘米，剑身由柱脊变为棱脊，由无从(血槽)变为有从，刃部由直刃变为弧线内收。加强了剑的直刺功能，提高了剑的杀伤力。

Before the late Spring and Autumn Period, according to archaeological excavations, bronze swords were small and short and were generally used by aristocrats for self-defence. From the late Spring and Autumn Period to the middle and late Warring States Period, the number of bronze swords increased sharply; they were no longer reserved for aristocrats, but were also used by soldiers as weapons. The swords of the middle and late Warring States Period were generally 20 centimetres to 30 centimetres longer than those of the middle and late Spring and Autumn Period. The swords shifted from cylindrical ridges to angular ridges, blood grooves were added to the body, and straight blades were replaced by curved blades that were narrower somewhere in the middle section. Such swords were more suitable for stabbing and more lethal.

楚王车马阵 图/国家文物局

先秦时期，战车是最主要的军事装备，也是衡量军事实力强弱的标志之一。

In the pre-Qin period, chariots were the most important military equipment and an indicator of a state's military strength.

战车基本上是木制的。为使车子更加牢固和美观，往往在车的某些部位安装青铜所铸的部件，如轴头上装的軎和辖，辕、衡、轭端上装的铜帽饰等。至于马具，也制作得精美华丽，如贴金箔的马饰等。楚国的车马器，既是战车上不可缺少的部件，也是一件件精美的工艺品，是楚国科学技术和装饰艺术的完美结合。

Chariots were basically made of wood. To make them stronger and more beautiful, bronze parts were fitted to some places, such as axleend pieces and linchpins and the caps of shafts, crossbars and yokes. The harnesses were also exquisitely made, such as gold-plated trappings. For the chariots of Chu, such implements were not only indispensable components but also beautiful handicrafts. They perfectly combined the technology and decorative art of Chu.

楚国艺术是中国南方艺术的代表，充满着浪漫灵动。楚人艺术符号多用龙凤、巫觋、云气母题；造型崇尚各种非写实的组合动物和灵媒。装饰常见镶嵌、髹漆、金银错工艺；色彩喜好对比强烈，堆砌五色；铜器纹饰构图规整，多为二方连续或四方连续；漆器自由，喜欢以曲线、弧线、波折纹传达动感；玉器承袭中原，特色不显。

The arts of Chu, typical of South China, were full of romance and vitality. Dragons, phoenixes, sorcerers and sorceresses as well as cloud motifs were common artistic symbols of Chu. Combined animals, spiritual media and other non-realistic images were often employed. Articles were often lacquered, gold or silver-inlaid or inset with other decorative materials. Various colours were adopted to achieve a striking contrast. Bronze objects were decorated with regular patterns, mostly two-sided or four-sided continuous patterns. Lacquer objects conveyed a dynamic sense with free curves, arcs and zigzag patterns. Jade articles of Chu were more or less similar to those in the Central Plains.

楚国在青铜器制造上，一方面将商代和西周以来的青铜铸造技术发扬光大，一方面又焕发出蓬勃的创造力，制作出众多精美绝伦的青铜器物。在铸造技术方面，不仅合范铸造法高度发达，而且能熟练运用失蜡法、金银错、镶嵌绿松石等工艺技术。

Chu not only carried forward the bronze casting technology of the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, but also innovatively produced many exquisite bronze objects. In Chu, the modulation method was highly developed, and various processes such as the lost-wax process, the gold or silver-inlaying process and the turquoise-inlaying processes were skilfully applied.

错金云纹鉴缶  图/武汉东湖

金银错亦称错金银，楚国青铜器表面以金银镶嵌出精美的花纹，这种工艺古代叫金错、银错。人们首先在青铜器的表面铸出花纹的浅槽，然后将金丝、银丝或金片、银片嵌入表面的花纹浅槽中，经过打磨使表面光滑。有的刻槽细如毫发，为錾刻，为了使镶嵌物牢固，可以在浅槽中涂一层起粘合作用的漆，然后将金银丝嵌入。金银错是我国青铜时代一项精细的装饰工艺，它是青铜工艺发展了一千多年以后，到春秋中晚期才兴盛起来的。其艺术特征是用隐嵌的技法形成金银线图案或文字，改变模铸纹饰的呆板和拘束，突破传统的图形对称形式。

The gold or silver-inlaying process, as it was known in ancient times, was used to achieve beautiful patterns on the bronze objects of Chu. First, people cast shallow grooves on the surface of bronze objects. Then they inlaid gold or silver wires or sheets in the shallow grooves and polished the surface till it was smooth. Some grooves were so finely carved that they were as thin as hairs. In such a case, to keep the inlaid parts in place, a layer of adhesive paint was applied to the shallow grooves before inlaying the gold or silver wires. The gold or silver-inlaying process was a fine decoration process during China's Bronze Age. After the bronze casting technology had developed for more than 1,000 years, it began to thrive in the middle and late Spring and Autumn Period. As its artistic feature, the process used invisible inlaying techniques to form patterns or characters of gold or silver wires, thus changing the moulded patterns which were rigid and restrained and overcoming the limitation of traditional symmetrical forms.

曾侯乙铜建鼓座 图/湖北省博物馆

镶嵌绿松石，器物先铸成阴纹的纹饰，然后按照纹饰的规格制作不同形状的绿松石片或块。镶嵌绿松石片或块时用粘接剂，其成分有树胶或漆，因树胶为有机物，埋在地下日久即腐朽失去粘性，故发掘出土的镶嵌绿松石的器物，纹饰中的绿松石常有脱落现象。

For the turquoise inlaying process, patterns were first cast in intaglio form on objects, and then turquoise pieces or blocks of different shapes were made to match the patterns. The turquoise pieces or blocks were inlaid with an adhesive that was made of gum or lacquer. Since the gum was organic, it would decay and lose its viscosity after being buried under the ground for a long time. Therefore, when turquoise-inlaid objects were excavated, the turquoise in the decorative patterns often had already fallen off.

图/湖北省博物馆社教部

战国。1974年秭归斑鸠窝出土。高22.8厘米，口径17.5厘米。器形为球状，由盖、身各半合成，盖身同大。盖身各有三个昂首兽钮、足。两侧各有对称环钮。器This bronze Dun tripod dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 1974 from the Banjiuwo site in Zigui County. It is 22.8 centimetres tall and has a mouth diameter of 17.5 centimetres. The object is spherical and consists of a body and a lid, both of the same size. There are three animal-shaped knobs on the lid, three animal-shaped feet at the base of the body, and two symmetrical ring handles on each side. The body is adorned with serpentine patterns. Dun tripods are rice containers. Such artefacts are characteristic of Chu and commonly found in its former territory.

图/湖北省博物馆社教部

战国。1965年江陵望山1号墓出土。这件带钩在墓内被放置于墓主头部左侧。长46.2厘米，宽6.5厘米，厚0.5厘米。带钩相当于皮带扣，有些也可用来悬挂随身物品，流行于春秋战国和秦汉时期。楚国带钩制作精美，有鎏金的铜带钩和错金银的铁带钩。

This girdle hook dates back to the Warring States Period. When unearthed in 1965 from Wangshan M1 in Jiangling County, it was placed at the left side of the tomb owner's head. It is 46.2 centimetres long, 6.5 centimetres wide and 0.5 centimetres thick. Girdle hooks are equivalent to belt buckles. Some of them were also used to hang personal belongings. They were popular in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Qin and Han dynasties. The girdle hooks of Chu, featuring exquisite craftsmanship, include gold-plated bronze girdle hooks and gold and silver-inlaid iron girdle hooks.

图/湖北省博物馆社教部

战国。1966年元月湖北江陵望山2号墓出土，也称人骑骆驼手擎灯，是2400多年前楚国照明用具青铜灯。通高19.2厘米、柄长9.8厘米、灯盘径8.9厘米，盘内空1.7厘米。

This lamp dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in January 1966 from Wangshan M2 in Jiangling County, Hubei Province. This bronze lamp, held by a man riding on a camel, was used for lighting in Chu more than 2,400 years ago. It has a total height of 19.2 centimetres. The shank is 9.8 centimetres tall, and the disc is 8.9 centimetres in diameter and 1.7 centimetres in depth. 

先秦漆器以楚墓出土最多，这无疑是楚国髹漆业在东周列国中最为发达的重要佐证。典雅华丽的楚国漆器是楚文化最鲜明的特色之一，无论是丰富浪漫的艺术造型、富丽华美的纹样图案，还是富于神话色彩的艺术题材，都洋溢着古老艺术所独具的神奇气息，使人领略到神秘而新奇的美感，显示出楚文化浪漫的风韵。

More pre-Qin lacquer objects have been unearthed in Chu tombs than in other tombs, which is undoubtedly important evidence that Chu had the most developed lacquer industry among all states of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. The elegant and magnificent lacquer objects of Chu are one of the most distinctive features of Chu culture. Their variable and romantic artistic forms, gorgeous and colourful patterns and mythological subject matter are imbued with a miraculous breath unique to ancient art. They produce a novel, mysterious sense of beauty and fully reflect the romantic charm of Chu culture.

楚国髹漆业的发展有着得天独厚的条件，楚国有十分丰富的漆树资源，气候温暖、雨量充足，利于漆树的生长，潮湿的气候也适宜漆器的生产，使漆膜干燥、坚固、富有光泽。大量精美的楚国漆器能被保存下来，最主要的原因是楚地地下水位高，楚墓中出土的漆器都浸泡在属中性的水中，不易损坏。加上楚墓多为土坑木椁墓，深埋于地下，木椁外还常常填塞有粘性好和抗渗性的白膏泥或青膏泥，对椁室起着防腐密封的作用，为漆器的保存提供了有利的环境。

Chu had unique conditions for developing the lacquering industry. It boasted abundant lacquer trees, which grew well due to warm weather and sufficient rainfall. The humid weather was also suitable for producing lacquerware, making the lacquer film dry, firm and glossy. A large number of exquisite lacquer objects of Chu have been preserved till today largely because of its high level of groundwater. The lacquer objects unearthed in Chu tombs were soaked in neutral water, which prevented them from being damaged. In addition, Chu tombs are mostly timber-chambered earthen pit tombs. They were buried deep underground, and the spaces outside the outer coffins were usually filled with viscous and impermeable montmorillonite clay, which sealed the outer coffins, protected them from corrosion and provided a favourable environment for preserving the lacquer objects.

彩绘云兽纹漆圆盘 图/湖北省博物馆

楚国漆器的雕塑艺术以它精巧别致的造型，奇妙而稳重的形体组合，丰富而神秘的思想内涵，形成了独具特色的艺术风格，是楚文化艺术最具有艺术感染力的表现形式。各式各样的艺术造像，其神态生动，雕刻精湛，在形体构成方面更是别具特色，突出表现在功能性与寓意性的巧妙统一，显示出人与神相畏敬而又相亲善的情感色彩。

The carved lacquer objects of Chu exhibit a unique artistic style, characterized by their exquisite and ingenious shapes, dignified and harmonious compositions, and rich, mysterious ideological connotations. They are the most artistically expressive form of Chu culture and one of its most distinctive artistic manifestations. Their diverse artistic representations are vividly and exquisitely carved. They are even more distinctive in their formal composition, ingeniously uniting function and symbolism to express the awe and affection humans feel towards gods.

图/湖北省博物馆

战国。1987年湖北荆门包山2号墓出土。直径27.9厘米，通高10.8厘米。在这件漆圆奁上描绘有《人物车马出行图》漆画，画幅长87.4厘米，宽5.2厘米。描绘了出行和迎宾的场景。

This round lacquered Lian toilet case dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 1987 from Baoshan M2 in Jingmen City, Hubei Province. It has a diameter of 27.9 centimetres and a total height of 10.8 centimetres. It is painted with human figures, horses and carriages. The picture is 87.4 centimetres long and 5.2 centimetres wide. It depicts the scenes of travel and greeting guests. 

图/湖北省博物馆官网

战国。2002年湖北枣阳九连墩1号墓出土。高19.7厘米、盘口径13.2厘米—15.4厘米。盘由盘底及十六片花瓣状盘壁粘接而成。柄、座由纠结的一龙一蛇构成。龙、蛇均由整木雕刻而成。通体黑漆为地，髹土红、赭色漆和土黄、中黄粉绘花纹。

This artefact dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 2002 from Jiuliandun M1 in Zaoyang City, Hubei Province. It is 19.7 centimetres tall, with a plate diameter ranging from 13.2 to 15.4 centimetres. The plate consists of a bottom and a wall made up of sixteen petal-shaped pieces. The handle and the base are formed by an intertwined dragon and snake, both carved from a single piece of wood. The entire artefact is coated with black lacquer as the base, with red, ochre, and yellow lacquer patterns painted in earthy and medium shades.

彩绘龙云纹单头镇墓兽 图/湖北省博物馆官网

镇墓兽是楚墓中富有特色的一种随葬品，起镇墓辟邪的作用。在湖北春秋战国时期的楚墓中，已发现数以百计的镇墓兽。它始见于春秋，盛行于战国。镇墓兽有单头单身和双头双身造型，一般由头、身和座三部分构成，头顶上均插一对真鹿角。

Tomb guardian animals are funerary objects unique to Chu tombs. They were used to guard the tombs and exorcise evil spirits. So far, hundreds of tomb guardian animals have been unearthed from the Chu tombs of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period in Hubei Province. They began to emerge in the Spring and Autumn Period and were popular in the Warring States Period. Some of them were single-headed and single-bodied, and others were double-headed and double-bodied. A tomb guardian animal usually consists of three parts: the head, the body and the base, with a pair of real antlers planted atop the head.

古人以美石为玉。自新石器时代起，作为人神沟通媒介的玉器成为贵族身份象征。玉器按用途大致可分为礼器、佩饰、葬器和实用器四类。玉礼器有仪式用途，玉佩饰象征身份，葬玉有宗教功能，梳、觽、扳指等实用器则彰显身份富贵。在“君子比德于玉”的文化氛围下，先秦时期的诸侯列国贵族佩玉、葬玉形成风气。

The ancients called beautiful stones 'jade'. Since the Neolithic Age, jade objects, as a medium of communication between humans and gods, had become a symbol of status for aristocrats. Jade objects, based on their purposes, can be roughly divided into four categories: ritual vessels, funerary objects, practical objects and pendants. Jade ritual vessels served ceremonial purposes; jade pendants symbolised high social status; jade funerary objects carried religious connotations; and practical jade objects such as combs, Xipendants and thumb rings showed owners' wealth and status. In all states of the pre-Qin period, in a cultural context where 'gentlemen regarded pieces of jade as emblematic of virtues', it was vogue for aristocrats to wear jade objects during their lifetime and be buried with jade objects when they died.

玉带钩 图/湖北省博物馆官网

楚墓出土有大量玉器。楚人按贵族等级佩玉，大夫以上有组佩，士则佩一至两件，平民不佩玉。玉器不仅是我国传统的“礼仪”用器和饰品，而且被视为珍宝，用来显示自己的身份和地位。玉是礼制社会代表各贵族阶层身份地位不可或缺的重要物品。

A large number of jade objects have been unearthed in Chu tombs. In Chu, aristocrats of different ranks wore varying jade objects. Officials at or above the Dafu level wore several jade pendants; scholars wore one or two; and ordinary people wore none. In ancient China, jade objects were not only traditional ritual vessels and accessories but also treasured items used to signify identity and status. In a ritual society, jade objects were indispensable symbols of the aristocracy’s status.

玉珑 九连墩1号墓出土 图/湖北省博物馆官网

战国时期是楚国玉器制作的鼎盛时期，玉器的制作工艺复杂，一般都经过锯截、琢磨、穿孔、雕刻等工序。器类有璧、环、璜、管、佩饰等。较典型的楚式玉器造型复杂，构图奇妙，以镂空、阴刻或隐起的细密纹样，将当时流行的龙、凤、虎等纹饰表现得充满生机，富有韵律。

The Warring States Period was the heyday of jade production in Chu. The production of jade objects involved complex processes such as sawing, honing, perforating, and carving. Jade objects include bi discs, rings, huang pendants, tubes, and other ornaments. Typical Chu jade objects feature complex shapes and ingenious designs. Dragons, phoenixes, tigers, and other motifs are vividly and rhythmically depicted through hollow, intaglio, or bas-relief carving techniques.

图/湖北省博物馆官网

战国。1965年湖北江陵望山2号墓出土。直径21.4厘米，内径6.9厘米。周代以玉璧象征苍天，玉璧也是重要礼器。

This jade disc dates back to the Warring States Period. It was unearthed in 1965 from Wangshan M2 in Jiangling County, Hubei Province. It has an outer diameter of 21.4 centimetres and an inner diameter of 6.9 centimetres. During the Zhou dynasty, Bi jade discs symbolized the heavens and were also important ritual vessels.

编辑/楚小游